The Distance-Vector routing algorithm is known by other names. Bellman-Ford routing algorithm and the Ford-Fulkerson algorithm are generally distributed after the researchers create it (Bellman 1957, and Ford and Fulkerson, 1962).FeaturesFollowing are the features of the distance vector routing are −The routers send the knowledge of the whole autonomous framework.Sharing of data takes place only with the neighbours.Sending of data holds place at constant, ordinary intervals, declared every 30 seconds.In this algorithm, each router evaluates the distance between itself and every achievable destination. This is accomplished by assessing the distance between a router and all of its immediate router neighbours ... Read More

Non-adaptive algorithm or static routing is independent of the current traffic and topology volume. They determine the route to which a datagram is to send off-line. The route is computed and downloaded to the routers when the network is booted. Thus, routing data is manually specified. It provides fixed-route data to each router. If there is no transform in route, it is created manually. This procedure is also called static routing.Random WalkIn this technique, a packet is transmitted by the node to one of its neighbours casually. This algorithm is hugely powerful. When the network is hugely associated, this algorithm ... Read More

The network layer offers its functions to the transport layer, and for that, it takes services of the data link layer. Its functions are carried out by adding a header to every Network Service data unit (N-SDU). This header is in the form of Protocol Control Information (PCI). Thus a formed Network protocol data unit is transported over the existing data-link connection.The functions of the network layer are as follows −Network ConnectionWhen the Network layer receives a call request from the transport layer, it establishes a network connection across the subnetwork. For this, it makes use of data link connections. ... Read More

The network layer design issues contain the services position to the transport layer, routing packets over the subnet, congestion control, and connection of multiple networks together.The design issues of the network layer are as follows −It is the network layer's goals to support logical services to several users linked to multiple networks. Hence, the services supported should be autonomous of the basic technology. In this way, the client's use of the service requires inconvenience with the network's physical execution to send their messages.The transport layer at the host device should not require knowing how the broadcasting connection with the destination ... Read More

PPP is a protocol that is generally used to provide similar functionality as SLIP. It is the best robust protocol that can transfer different types of packets also along with IP Packets. It can also be needed for dial-up and hired router-router lines. It generally supports the framing techniques to represent frames. It can transfer diagrams across a serial connection to transfer IP traffic over the point-to-point connection as an encapsulation protocol.It can provide the responsibility and executive of IP addresses, asynchronous and bit-oriented synchronous encapsulation, network protocol multiplexing, link configuration, etc. It can support an extensible Link Control Protocol (LCP) ... Read More

A mode in HDLC is the realigning between two machines contained in a network. The mode describes who controls the link. HDLC determines three types of stations such as primary, secondary, and combined.A primary station is a controlling station on a connection. It controls the secondary stations on the connection and handles data flow and error recovery.A secondary station as existing on a connection where there is a primary station. The secondary station is contained by the primary station and has no explicit authority for maintaining the connection.A combined station is a combination of primary and secondary stations.HDLC Operational ModesThere ... Read More

The HDLC process is regulated by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). This is possible for high-speed communication of a high amount of information. The necessary control process cannot support this communication.The HDLC process has been regulated and established on the SDLC. In addition to the characters, bit strings of the acquired length can also be sent through this process. The unit of data communication is known as a frame.HDLC Frame StructureTo provide support for all options in the mode and configuration, HDLC defines three types of frames.Information Frames (IF)The I-Frame is as follows −FlagAddressControl  User Information   FCS Flag        ... Read More

Synchronous protocols take the whole bitstream and drop it into the character of equal size. It is a data transfer approach in which it is a continual flow of information signals followed by computing signal. These protocols facilitate the provision that the broadcaster and the receiver are integrated. This transmission approach is mainly used when vast amounts of record are needed to be moved from one area to another. There are two types of synchronous protocol which are as follows − Character Oriented Protocols It is also called as the byte-oriented protocol to interpret a transition frame or packet as ... Read More

The Hamming code can be used to the data units of any length when we consider the two codewords which have the same length. The Hamming distance between two codewords is represented as the number of positions in which their specific item differs.ExampleHamming Distance is 3.Hamming code is also known as linear block code. The family of (n, k) hamming codes for m  is defined.Block length n=2m-1.The number of message bits k=2m-m-1.Number of Parity Bits = n-k=m.Where m≥3Minimum distancemin=3.Code rate = Code efficiency = $\frac{k}{n} = \frac{2^{m}-m-1}{2^{m}-1} = 1 - \frac{m}{2^{m}-1}$ of m>> 1then, code rate r=1 where k is ... Read More

In the detection method, only the error can be detected. Still, in the error correction method, the errors are corrected automatically at the receiver end and no need for re-transmission.  The burst error correction is very limited to 2 bits only.Each kbit block of data is added with redundant bits that make a codeword of n bits (n > k). A forward error correction encoder is used on the transmission end. Then, the codeword is transmitted. The signal is demodulated to make a bit string equivalent to the initial codeword to include the errors at the receiver.If no bit error, ... Read More