Parity Bit is the simplest and frequently used method for detecting an error. In this method, we have to join a parity bit to the end of the data structure. The bit is so chosen that the weight of codeword is either even or odd of, i.e. V is the cost of this bit is chosen therefore that the character has an even number of 1's called even parity or an odd number of 1's known as odd parity.For Example,  If the transmitter is transmitting 1110001 and using odd parity. It willappend 1 in sorting. The receiver determines the received ... Read More

There are a few effects of errors which are as follows −Attenuation: Due to error, the signal may get attenuated, i.e., the data may be costly in the extreme case.Delay Distortion: Due to this error at the receiving end, the wave is distorted due to a delay in transmission.Interference in voice communication can occur due to an error in the signal.Echo can be produced because the sender cannot hear the receivers answer or voice.Cross talk can occur because of the error in the broadcasted signal. Due to this, the faint voice of another party may disturb your signal.Data Error Rate:  (P10):Probability that ... Read More

It makes use of the lower gigahertz frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. These frequencies are higher than radio frequencies, and they make better throughput and execution. This transmission can be further classified as Terrestrial or Satellite.Types of Microwave TransmissionThere are two types of microwave transmission, which are as follows.Terrestrial Microwave TransmissionThese systems use directional parabolic antennas to transmit and receive signals in the lower gigahertz range, as shown in the figure. These signals are highly focussed and travel insight. Relay towers can extend signals. Smaller terrestrial microwaves systems can be used inside a building. Some microwave LANS works at low ... Read More

The electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are known as a microwave. Microwave systems use very high-frequency radio or television signals to transmit data through space. Therefore, the transmitter and receiver of a microwaves system, which is mounted on very high towers, should be invisible to each other, i.e., they both should be in a line-of-sight. Moreover, the signals become weak after travelling a certain distance and require power amplification.Microwave systems can carry large quantities of data at high rates of speed. The data transmission rate is about 16 gps (Gigabits per second). A microwave system can ... Read More

Radio waves have frequencies between 10 kHz and 1 gigahertz. The range of electromagnetic spectrum between 10 kHz and 1 GHz is known as radiofrequency (RF).Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna sends radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This defines that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.A sending antenna sends waves that any receiving antenna can receive. It is based on the wavelength, strength, and purpose of transmission. There are various types of antennas, as display in the figure.Radio waves are those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long ... Read More

In this type of media, the signal propagates in the form of electromagnetic waves without the requirement of solid media, i.e., in the air. There are also called wireless media.The electromagnetic spectrum used for wireless communication is shown in the figure −Propagation MethodsThe unguided signals can travel from the transmitter to the receiver in many different ways. The three most important methods are −Ground Wave PropagationSKY PropagationSpace propagation or line of sight propagationBandsThe electromagnetic spectrum is divided into several subbands. The following table shows various frequency bands corresponding to multiple types of propagation and application −Electromagnetic Waves BandNameFrequencyWavelengthExtremely Low Frequency ... Read More

We are getting different types of services by using various modes of communication. The wired method of communication is one of the most efficient and successful modes. There are different types of cables available such as twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and optical fiber cables. Read through this article to find out the characteristic features that differentiate these cables. What is a Twisted Pair Cable? A twisted pair cable comprises two insulated wires that have been twisted together. They are in use in the field of communications for a long time. You might have seen this type of cable ... Read More

A fibre optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the structure of light signals. The structure of an optical fibre cable is displayed in the figure. It involves an inner glass core surrounded by a glass cladding that reflects the light into the core. Each fibre is encircled by a plastic jacket.In fibre optics, semiconductor lasers transmit data in the form of light along with hair-thin glass (optical) fibres at the speed of light (186, 000 miles second) with no significant loss of intensity over very long distances. The system includes fibre optic cables that ... Read More

Co-axial includes a central copper wire surrounded by PVC insulation over which a copper mesh sleeve is placed. Again, the metal sleeve is shielded by an outer shield of thick PVC material, as shown in the figure.The coaxial cable structure provides it with the right mixture of high bandwidth and good noise community. For 1 km cables, a data price of 10 Mbps is feasible. Higher data rates are applicable for shorter cables. Co-axial cables are generally used for cable TV and long-distance transmission within the telephone system.Characteristics of Co-axial CableThe main characteristics of the coaxial cable are as follows ... Read More

Twisted-pair are generally made of copper, and a pair of wires are twisted together to decrease interference by adjacent wires. A twisted pair includes two conductors (copper), each with its plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires can transfer signals to the receiver, and the difference is used just as a ground reference. The receiver helps the difference between the two.This means, if two wires are correlated to each other, the noise or crosstalk can affect one wire, and the difference between the two levels would vary. When these wires are twisted, both wires have a similar effect of ... Read More