A transmission system is classified as asynchronous if the system enables the physical channel to be useless for an arbitrary time between two transmissions. The asynchronous design of communication is well-appropriated to applications that create data at random (e.g., a user classifying on a keyboard or a user that press on a link to include a web page, reads for a while, and then press on a link to include another page).The drawback of asynchrony improves from the lack of coordination between sender and receiver while the channel is empty. A receiver cannot know how long the channel will remain ... Read More

The alternative to parallel transmission, called serial transmission, sends one bit at a time. With the importance of speed, it may seem that anyone designing a data communications system would choose parallel transmission. However, most communication systems use serial mode.Following are the two main reasons for serial transmission−First, serial networks can be continued over long distances at much less cost because fewer physical wires are required, and intermediate electronic elements are less cheap.Second, using only one physical wire defines that there are never timing issues caused by one wire being slightly higher than another (a difference of millimetres can be ... Read More

To establish a reliable service between two machines on a network, transport protocols are implemented, which somehow resembles the data link protocols implemented at layer 2. The major difference lies in the fact that the data link layer uses a physical channel between two routers while the transport layer uses a subnet.Following are the issues for implementing transport protocols−Types of ServiceThe transport layer also determines the type of service provided to the users from the session layer. An error-free point-to-point communication to deliver messages in the order in which they were transmitted is one of the key functions of the ... Read More

FDDI stands for Fiber Distributed Data Interface. It is a collection of ANSI and ISO standards for data transmission on fiber-optic lines in a local area network (LAN) that can broaden in the range up to 200 km (124 miles). The FDDI protocol depends on the token ring protocol.FDDI cabling consists of two fiber rings, one transmitting clockwise and the other transmitting counterclockwise. Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) is generally implemented as a dual token-passing ring within a ring topology (for campus networks) or star topology (inside a building). The dual ring includes a primary and secondary ring.The primary ring ... Read More

The error-reporting message defines that the router encounters a problem when it processes an IP packet, then it reports a message. Error messages are continually transmitted to the original source because the only data possible in the datagram around the route is the source and destination IP addresses.The error reporting messages are generally classified into the following types−When a router cannot route a datagram, or a host cannot transfer a datagram, the datagram is rejected, and the router or the host share a destination-unreachable message back to the source host that proposed the datagram.Destination unreachable messages with codes 2 or ... Read More

The ICMP represents Internet Control Message Protocol. It is a network layer protocol. It can be used for error handling in the network layer, and it is generally used on network devices, including routers. IP Protocol is a best-effect delivery service that delivers a datagram from its original source to its final destination. It has two deficiencies−Lack of Error ControlLack of assistance mechanismsIP protocol also lacks a structure for host and management queries. A host needs to resolve if a router or another host is alive, and sometimes a network manager needs information from another host or router.ICMP has been ... Read More

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is a network-specific standard protocol. It is described in RFC 903. Some network hosts, such as a diskless workstation, do not know their own IP address when they are booted. To determine their own IP address, they use a mechanism similar to ARP, but now the hardware address of the host is the known parameter, and the IP address is the queried parameter.The reverse address resolution is performed the same way as the ARP address resolution. The same packet format is used for the ARP.An exception is the operation code field that now takes the ... Read More

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a network-specific standard protocol. The Address Resolution Protocol is important for changing the higher-level protocol address (IP addresses) to physical network addresses. It is described in RFC 826.ARP relates an IP address with the physical address. On a typical physical network such as LAN, each device on a link is identified by a physical address, usually printed on the network interface card (NIC). A physical address can be changed easily when NIC on a particular machine fails.The IP Address cannot be changed. ARP can find the physical address of the node when its internet address ... Read More

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPV 6) is the replacement for version 4 (IPV 4). The phenomenal development of the Internet has begun to push IP to its limits. It provides a large address space, and it contains a simple header as compared to IPv4.Features of IPV6There are various features of IPV6, which are as follows−Larger address space: An IPV6 address is 128 bits long. It is compared with the 32-bit address of IPV4. It will allow for unique IP-addresses up to 3.4 x 1038 whereas IPV4 allows up to 4.3 x 108 unique address.Better Header format: New header form has ... Read More

Protocol suites are collecting protocols that act at different layers of the network model to ensure successful communication. There is the various function of the protocol, which are as follows−Connection Establishment/ReleaseA data transfer can be a communication-oriented transfer or connectionless transfer. The connectionless services are the most unreliable services. Most of the protocols provide connection-oriented services. If a large volume of data transfer is required, connectionoriented services are always better.EncapsulationA protocol defines how the data is encapsulated in the frame or packet. Each packet in all PDUs contains three fields for control information along with the data field. There are ... Read More