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Articles by Urmila Samariya
108 articles
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) Header
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is the next generation internet protocol designed to replace IPv4. IPv6 addresses the critical limitations of IPv4, particularly the exhaustion of available IP addresses, by using a 128-bit address space that provides virtually unlimited addressing capacity. IPv6 introduces significant improvements over IPv4 including simplified header structure, better routing efficiency, enhanced security features, and built-in support for network auto-configuration. While maintaining backward compatibility concepts, IPv6 removes outdated IPv4 functions and streamlines packet processing. IPv6 Address Representation IPv6 addresses use 128 bits, represented as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits separated by colons. This ...
Read MoreInternet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is a network layer protocol that operates within the OSI model's network layer and the TCP/IP model's internet layer. It serves as a communication mechanism for routers and network devices to send control and error messages throughout the network. ICMP enables network devices to report problems, query network status, and provide diagnostic information. Common ICMP messages include "destination unreachable, " "time exceeded, " and "echo requests" used by utilities like ping. ICMP Message Flow in Network Communication Host A ...
Read MoreARP, Reverse ARP, Inverse ARP, Proxy ARP, and Gratuitous ARP
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol that works on the TCP/IP Layer 2, mapping IP addresses to MAC addresses within a local network segment. ARP helps to get the MAC address of the connected router or gateway from the IP address. ARP is a request-response protocol in which one device sends a request to another device asking for some information, and the other device responds with the required information. ARP packets are encapsulated by a link-layer and are distributed only in a specific network. ARP is considered a link-layer protocol. How Does ARP Work? ...
Read MoreMultiplexing and Demultiplexing in Transport Layer
Multiplexing and Demultiplexing are essential functions of the Transport Layer that enable multiple applications to communicate simultaneously over a single network connection. These processes allow efficient sharing of network resources by managing data flow from multiple sources. Multiplexing Multiplexing is the process of collecting data from multiple application processes of the sender, enveloping that data with headers, and sending them as a whole to the intended receiver. In Multiplexing at the Transport Layer, data is collected from various application processes. These segments contain the source port number, destination port number, header files, and data. ...
Read MoreDynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is a client/server protocol that automatically provides an Internet Protocol (IP) host with its IP address and other related configuration information such as the subnet mask and default gateway. In DHCP, port number 67 is used for the server and 68 is used for the client. DHCP allows a network administrator to supervise and distribute IP addresses from a central point and automatically sends a new Internet Protocol (IP) address when a computer is plugged into a different place in the network. DHCP is an application layer protocol that provides: IP ...
Read MoreNetwork Devices (Hub, Repeater, Bridge, Switch, Router, Gateways and Brouter)
Network devices or networking hardware are the physical devices that are used for establishing connections and facilitating interaction between different devices in a computer network. Each device operates at specific layers of the OSI model and serves distinct purposes in network communication. Network Devices and OSI Layers Hub Repeater Bridge Switch Router Gateway Physical Data Link Network ...
Read MoreDifference between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching
Circuit Switching and Packet Switching are two fundamental approaches to data transmission in computer networks. Circuit switching establishes a dedicated communication path, while packet switching divides data into packets that travel independently through the network. Circuit Switching Circuit switching is a connection-oriented service that provides a dedicated path from the sender to the receiver. A connection setup is required before data transmission can begin. This method has very little chance of data loss due to the dedicated circuit, but bandwidth can be wasted since the same path cannot be used by other senders during transmission. Circuit switching is ...
Read MoreTCP 3-Way Handshake Process
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) provides a secure and reliable connection between two devices using the 3-way handshake process. TCP uses a full-duplex connection to synchronize (SYN) and acknowledge (ACK) each other on both sides. There are three steps for both establishing and closing a connection: SYN, SYN-ACK, and ACK. The 3-way handshake ensures that both client and server are ready for data transmission and agree on initial sequence numbers for reliable data ordering and flow control. Connection Establishment Process The following diagram illustrates how a reliable connection is established using the 3-way handshake between a client and ...
Read MoreDistance Vector Routing (DVR) Protocol
In distance-vector routing (DVR), each router is required to inform the topology changes to its neighboring routers periodically. Historically it is known as the old ARPANET routing algorithm or Bellman-Ford algorithm. Distance vector routing is a distributed routing protocol where routers share information about network destinations with their directly connected neighbors. Each router maintains a distance vector table that contains the best known distance to every destination in the network. How the DVR Protocol Works Routing table maintenance − Each router maintains a routing table containing one entry for each destination, with two parts: a ...
Read MorePHP – grapheme_strlen() function
A grapheme is the smallest functional unit of a writing system. Graphemes can be interpreted as the smallest units of writing that correspond with sounds. The grapheme_strlen() function in PHP is used to get the string length in grapheme units. This function does not get the byte or character's length but counts the actual displayed characters, making it useful for Unicode text with combining characters. The grapheme_strlen function is supported in PHP 5.3.0 and higher versions. Note: The Intl extension must be installed and enabled to use this function. Syntax int grapheme_strlen(string $input) ...
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