Introduction DNA is the genetic material that provides instructions for the development, function, and reproduction of all living organisms. It is the molecular basis of life, and any damage to it can have serious consequences for the organism. DNA damage can occur spontaneously or as a result of exposure to ... Read More

Introduction Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are two essential macromolecules that play crucial roles in storing, transmitting, and expressing genetic information in living organisms. Both DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides, which are the building blocks of nucleic acids. However, there are significant differences between DNA ... Read More

Introduction The cell surface is the outermost layer of the cell that interacts with the external environment. It is a dynamic and complex structure composed of various biomolecules, including lipids, proteins, and carbohydrates. The cell surface plays a crucial role in communication between cells and their environment, and this communication ... Read More

Introduction Protein synthesis, the process of creating proteins from amino acids, is a fundamental process in all living organisms. This process requires the cooperation of many different molecules, including ribosomes, transfer RNAs (tRNAs), and aminoacyl tRNA synthetases (aaRSs). In this article, we will focus on aaRSs, the enzymes that attach ... Read More

Introduction The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. The immune system can be divided into two categories − Innate Immune System Adaptive Immune System. The innate ... Read More

Introduction T helper cells are a type of white blood cell that play a crucial role in the adaptive immune response. They are a subset of T cells that recognize and respond to specific antigens, which are molecules that are unique to pathogens. T helper cells work in conjunction with ... Read More

Introduction The immune system is responsible for protecting the body against pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. It consists of various cells and molecules that work together to identify and eliminate foreign invaders. One of the key players in this process is the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) class I molecule. ... Read More

Introduction B-cell receptors (BCRs) are complex protein structures found on the surface of B-lymphocytes, which are a type of white blood cell responsible for the production of antibodies. The BCR plays a crucial role in the immune system, enabling the B-cell to recognize and respond to foreign antigens. When ... Read More

Introduction The spleen is a fascinating organ that plays a crucial role in the body's immune system and blood filtration. It is located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen, just behind the stomach. Although it is not essential for life, the spleen serves several important functions that help ... Read More

Introduction Receptor Mediated Endocytosis (RME) is a highly selective process that enables cells to internalize specific molecules, such as hormones, growth factors, and nutrients, by binding to specific cell-surface receptors. Endocytosis is the process by which cells internalize extracellular material by engulfing it in vesicles that form at the plasma ... Read More