Found 30 Articles for Immunology

Introduction ADCC is a mechanism of cell-mediated immune response where an effector cell actively involves in the lysis of the target cells which have the antigens bound to the specific antibodies. If a human body is infected by several pathogens like bacteria, in that case, our body produces antibodies that can neutralize these pathogens. Here in this case of ADCC, several cellular mediators or the effector cells recognize one portion of these antibodies which are bound to the antigens, and engulf the whole cell coated by these antibodies. This is cell-mediated cytotoxicity as it involves the effector cells. ... Read More

Introduction Agglutination is a type of antigen-antibody reaction where the antibody interacts with the particulate antigen which eventually gives us visible clumping. Here antigen is not soluble in the aqueous environment. Antibodies here are called agglutinins and antigens are called agglutinogens. Clumping is due to the cross-linking between a polyvalent antigen and agglutinins. RBC Agglutination Principle Antigens involved in the agglutination reaction are surface antigens present on erythrocytes, bacterial particles or antigens attached to some matrix. These particles involved in agglutination reaction should have multiple binding sites to form cross links resulting in clumping. To form a visible clumping ... Read More

Introduction The immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against pathogens, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi. The immune system can be divided into two categories − Innate Immune System Adaptive Immune System. The innate immune system provides the first line of defense against pathogens, while the adaptive immune system provides a specific response to pathogens. The adaptive immune system is characterized by the ability to recognize and respond to specific pathogens and to retain a memory of past infections. The process that allows ... Read More

Introduction T helper cells are a type of white blood cell that play a crucial role in the adaptive immune response. They are a subset of T cells that recognize and respond to specific antigens, which are molecules that are unique to pathogens. T helper cells work in conjunction with other cells of the immune system, including B cells and macrophages, to mount an effective immune response against invading pathogens. The human body is constantly exposed to a wide range of microorganisms, including viruses, bacteria, and fungi. These microorganisms can cause infections that can lead to serious illnesses, such ... Read More

Introduction The immune system is responsible for protecting the body against pathogens such as viruses and bacteria. It consists of various cells and molecules that work together to identify and eliminate foreign invaders. One of the key players in this process is the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) class I molecule. Below we shall investigate synthesis of MHC class I molecules, their types, and functions. Synthesis of MHC Class I Molecules MHC class I molecules are synthesized in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of cells. The process of MHC class I synthesis begins with the transcription of the MHC class I ... Read More

Introduction B-cell receptors (BCRs) are complex protein structures found on the surface of B-lymphocytes, which are a type of white blood cell responsible for the production of antibodies. The BCR plays a crucial role in the immune system, enabling the B-cell to recognize and respond to foreign antigens. When an antigen binds to the BCR, it triggers a signaling pathway that leads to the activation of the B-cell and the production of specific antibodies. The structure of the BCR is composed of two main components − The antigen-binding site, which is made up of a heavy and a ... Read More

Introduction The spleen is a fascinating organ that plays a crucial role in the body's immune system and blood filtration. It is located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen, just behind the stomach. Although it is not essential for life, the spleen serves several important functions that help maintain the health of the body. One of its most vital functions is as a blood filter. Spleen The spleen is an oval-shaped organ that is about 4 inches long and weighs approximately 7 ounces in a healthy adult. It is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue that protects ... Read More

Introduction Receptor Mediated Endocytosis (RME) is a highly selective process that enables cells to internalize specific molecules, such as hormones, growth factors, and nutrients, by binding to specific cell-surface receptors. Endocytosis is the process by which cells internalize extracellular material by engulfing it in vesicles that form at the plasma membrane. This process is critical for a variety of cellular functions, including nutrient uptake, receptor recycling, and cell signalling. There are several types of endocytosis, including phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis (RME), which is also known as clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME). In this tutorial, we will discuss the mechanism ... Read More

Introduction Macrophages and Kupffer cells are both resident macrophages found in the liver, but they have distinct functions and differ in their origins. Macrophages are found throughout the body and can be recruited to the liver during inflammation or infection. The immune system plays a critical role in defending the body against harmful pathogens and foreign substances. Kupffer cells, on the other hand, are specialized macrophages that originate from fetal liver progenitors and are responsible for filtering blood in the liver. Professional phagocytes are immune cells that specialize in recognizing and engulfing foreign particles, such as bacteria, viruses, and ... Read More

Introduction Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are small, colourless, disc-shaped cells that play a crucial role in haemostasis, a process by which bleeding is stopped in injured blood vessels. Platelets are produced in the bone marrow and circulate in the blood until they are needed to form a blood clot. The clotting process involves a complex interplay between platelets, coagulation factors, and blood vessel walls. Platelet Structure and Function Platelets are the smallest of the three types of blood cells, with an average size of 2-3 µm in diameter. They are produced by megakaryocytes in the bone marrow, which ... Read More