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Data link layer translates the physical layers raw bit stream into discrete messages called frames. Now the question is how can a frame be transmitted, so the receiver can recognize the start and end frame?TechniquesThe techniques we used to find the start and end frame are −Character countFlag byte with byte stuffingStarting and ending flag with bit stuffingEncoding Violation.Now let us see the Physical layer encoding violation technique.Physical layer encoding violationThis framing method is used only in those networks in which encoding on the physical medium contain some redundancy.Some LANs encode each bit of data by using two physical bits ... Read More
Data link layer translates the physical layers raw bit stream into discrete messages called frames. Now the question is how can a frame be transmitted, so the receiver can recognize the start and end frame?TechniquesThe techniques we used to find the start and end frame are −Character countFlag byte with byte stuffingStarting and ending flag with bit stuffingEncoding Violation.Now let us see the character count technique.Character CountFirst framing method uses a field in the header to specify the number of characters in the frame. When the data link layer at the destination sees the character count, it knows how many ... Read More
Elementary Data Link protocols are classified into three categories, as given below −Protocol 1 − Unrestricted simplex protocolProtocol 2 − Simplex stop and wait protocolProtocol 3 − Simplex protocol for noisy channels.Let us discuss each protocol one by one.Unrestricted Simplex ProtocolData transmitting is carried out in one direction only. The transmission (Tx) and receiving (Rx) are always ready and the processing time can be ignored. In this protocol, infinite buffer space is available, and no errors are occurring that is no damage frames and no lost frames.The Unrestricted Simplex Protocol is diagrammatically represented as follows −Simplex Stop and Wait protocolIn ... Read More
Digital Modulation is the process of converting between bits and signals.Transmission MechanismsThe various modulation schemes result in various transmission mechanisms which are as follows −Baseband transmission.Passband transmission.Multiplexing TechniquesSharing of a transmission channel by various signals is called multiplexing. The different multiplexing techniques are as follows −Time division multiplexing.Frequency division multiplexing.Code division multiplexing.Now, let us discuss one of the digital modulation schemes.Passband TransmissionPassband transmission is the transmission after shifting the baseband frequencies to some higher frequency range using modulation. It is used for long distances.Steps for Passband TransmissionLet us understand the Passband transmission step by step.Step 1 − Generally, we want ... Read More
Digital Modulation is the process of converting between bits and signals.Transmission MechanismsThe various modulation schemes result in various transmission mechanisms which are as follows −Baseband transmission.Passband transmission.Multiplexing TechniquesSharing of a transmission channel by various signals is called multiplexing. The different multiplexing techniques are as follows −Time division multiplexing.Frequency division multiplexing.Code division multiplexing.Now, let us discuss one of the digital modulation schemes.Baseband TransmissionBaseband transmission is transmission of the encoded signal using its own baseband frequencies i.e. without any shift to higher frequency ranges. It is used for short distances.Steps in Baseband TransmissionLet us understand the baseband transmission step by step.Step 1 ... Read More
Digital wireless communication is not a new idea. Earlier, Morse code implemented the wireless network. Now-a-days, the modern digital systems use wireless systems of the same idea as Morse code as implemented but with better performance.Categories of Wireless NetworksWireless Networks are divided into three categories as explained below −System InterconnectionIt is all about interconnecting the components of a computer using short-range radio. Some companies together design a short-range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect various components like monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer etc, without wires.In simplest form, system interconnection networks use the master-slave concept. The system unit is normally the master. ... Read More
Transmitting the data in the form of packets over the internet is called casting.Types of CastingsThe different types of casting are as follows −Unicast − Transmitting data from one host to another host (one-one)Broad cast − Transmitting data from one host to many host (one-all)Multicast − Transmitting data from one host to a particular group of host (one-many).Let us see each casting type in detail −UnicastTransmitting data from one source host to one destination host is called a unicast. It is called as a one to one transmission.For example − source Host IP Address 192.168.20.1 sending data to destination Host ... Read More
Computer network is a group of computers or nodes that are linked to each other to share information and resources. Whereas, IP addresses are generally represented by a 32-bit unsigned binary value. It is represented in a dotted decimal format.For example, 9.250.7.5 is a valid IP address.The IP address consists of a pair of numbers −IP address = Let see the pictorial representation of two hosts that are communicated with the help of Network and IP address.ExplanationStep 1 − The service that is used to convert the Domain name to IP address is called Domain Name Service.Step 2 − The ... Read More
IP addresses are generally represented by a 32-bit unsigned binary value. It is represented in a dotted decimal format. For example, 9.250.7.5 is a valid IP address.The IP address consists of a pair of numbers −IP address = Class-based IP addressesThe first bits of the IP address specify how the rest of the address should be separated into its network and host part. This IP address consists of network ID and Host ID.Classes of IP addressThere are 5 classes of IP address in computer network, which are as follows −Class AClass BClass CClass DClass EThe numbers of IP addresses possible ... Read More
The insert() method is used to add a column from another DataFrame. At first, let us create our first DataFrame −dataFrame1 = pd.DataFrame({"Car": ["Audi", "Lamborghini", "BMW", "Lexus"], "Place": ["US", "UK", "India", "Australia"], "Units": [200, 500, 800, 1000]})Now, let us create our second DataFrame −dataFrame2 = pd.DataFrame({"Model": [2018, 2019, 2020, 2021], "CC": [3000, 2800, 3500, 3300]})Car column added from DataFrame1 to DataFrame2# Car column to be added to the second dataframe fetched_col = dataFrame1["Car"]ExampleFollowing is the code −import pandas as pd dataFrame1 = pd.DataFrame({"Car": ["Audi", "Lamborghini", "BMW", "Lexus"], "Place": ["US", "UK", "India", "Australia"], "Units": [200, 500, ... Read More