The network layer design issues contain the services position to the transport layer, routing packets over the subnet, congestion control, and connection of multiple networks together.The design issues of the network layer are as follows −It is the network layer's goals to support logical services to several users linked to ... Read More

The services provided by the transport layer are explained below −Address MappingIt means mapping of transport address onto the network address. Whenever a session entity requests to send a transport service data unit (TSDU) to another session entity, it sends its transport service access point address as its identification. The ... Read More

Substitution technique is a classical encryption approach where the characters present in the initial message are restored by the other characters or numbers or by symbols. If the plain text (original message) is treated as the string of bits, thus the substitution technique would restore bit pattern of plain text ... Read More

The I/O interface supports a method by which data is transferred between internal storage and external I/O devices. All the peripherals connected to a computer require special communication connections for interfacing them with the CPU.I/O Bus and Interface ModulesThe I/O bus is the route used for peripheral devices to interact ... Read More

The D flip-flop is a clocked flip-flop with a single digital input 'D'. Each time a D flip-flop is clocked, its output follows the state of 'D'. The D Flip Flop has only two inputs D and CP. The D inputs go precisely to the S input and its complement ... Read More

Query optimization is of great importance for the performance of a relational database, especially for the execution of complex SQL statements. A query optimizer decides the best methods for implementing each query.The query optimizer selects, for instance, whether or not to use indexes for a given query, and which join ... Read More

Frequency-Division Multiplexing (FDM) is an analog method which is used when the channel's bandwidth is higher than the consolidated bandwidths of the signals which are to be broadcasted.In FDM, different frequencies are combined into a single composite signal and are transmitted on the channel. At the receiver end, the reverse ... Read More

To establish a reliable service between two machines on a network, transport protocols are implemented, which somehow resembles the data link protocols implemented at layer 2. The major difference lies in the fact that the data link layer uses a physical channel between two routers while the transport layer uses ... Read More

The main memory is the fundamental storage unit in a computer system. It is associatively large and quick memory and saves programs and information during computer operations. The technology that makes the main memory work is based on semiconductor integrated circuits.RAM is the main memory. Integrated circuit Random Access Memory ... Read More

IOT represents the Internet of Things. It is a network of physical objects or people known as "things" that are installed with applications, electronics, networks, and sensors that enable these objects to collect and exchange information. The objective of IOT is to extend to web connectivity from standard devices such ... Read More