What is a Distribution System?The part of the power system that distributes electric power for local use is called as distribution system. Generally, a distribution system is the electrical system between the substation fed by transmission system and the consumer’s meters. A typical distribution system is shown in the figure.Components of Distribution SystemDistribution Sub-Station – A distribution sub-station is the electrical system which transfers power from transmission system to the distribution system of an area.Feeders – A feeder is a conductor which connects the distribution sub-station to the area where power is to be distributed. The current in a feeder remains ... Read More

Capacitor & CapacitanceWhen any two conducting surfaces are separated by an insulating material, it called as a capacitor. The conducting surfaces are known as plates of the capacitor and the insulating material is known as dielectric.The ability of a capacitor to store charge is termed as capacitance of the capacitor. It is denoted by C and measured in Farad (F).By experiments, it has been found that charge (Q) stored in a capacitor is directly proportional to the potential difference across it, i.e., $$Q\varpropto\:V$$$$\Rightarrow\:Q=CV$$$$\Rightarrow\:C=\frac{Q}{V}\:\:\:\:...(1)$$Where, C is a constant, known as capacitance of the capacitor.Hence, the capacitance (C) of a capacitor is ... Read More

Capacitors can be classified depending upon their fixed or variable capacitance as follows −Fixed CapacitorsThose capacitors whose value of capacitance is fixed during the manufacturing and cannot be changed later are known as fixed capacitors. The symbol of the fixed capacitor is shown in figure.The fixed capacitors are classified into two categories as −Polarized CapacitorsNon-Polarized CapacitorsPolarized CapacitorsThose capacitors which are having the specified positive and negative polarities, are called as polarized capacitors. When these capacitors are used in the circuits, they should be connected in perfect polarities.Polarized capacitors are further classified as −Electrolytic CapacitorsThose capacitors in which some electrolyte is ... Read More

The phase-electricity is produced by a 3-phase generator that has three separate but identical windings, which are called phases. The 3-phase windings of the 3-phase generator are displaced 120° apart from each other and rotate in a common uniform magnetic field. Therefore, a three-phase generator produces three voltages of the same magnitude and frequency but 120° electrical apart from one another.Consider a three-phase alternator as shown in the figure. It has three identical windings or coils R, Y and B displaced 120° electrical from each other and rotating in anticlockwise direction with an angular velocity ω in a magnetic field ... Read More

An ammeter is a measuring instrument which is used for the measurement of electric current in an electric circuit.An ammeter has a low resistance. The ammeter is connected in series with the load to measure the electric current flowing through it. As, the ammeter has a very low resistance, therefore when it is connected in series with any circuit, it does not change the current.Working PrincipleWhen the ammeter is connected in series with the load, the same current flows through the ammeter that flows through the load, this is because the current in a series circuit remains same through all ... Read More

Apart from the conventional methods of generating electricity (like thermal, hydroelectric, gas turbine, nuclear power etc.), there are also some alternative methods of generating electricity, which are as follows −Solar PowerThe electricity can be generated from the heat of the sun. In the solar power system, the energy of sunlight is converted into electricity, either directly by the photovoltaic cell or indirectly by using concentrated solar power or combination of both.In solar power generation, the sunlight strikes onto the PV cells, which converts the energy of sunlight into direct current, that can either be stored into batteries or converted into ... Read More

Electrical power is generated, transmitted and distributed in the form of 3-phase power because it has the following advantages over the single phase system −The three phase power has a constant magnitude while the power in single phase system is the function of supply frequency i.e. pulsates from zero to maximum value at twice the supply frequency. It can be seen from the following equations, 1 − phase power, $$p=\frac{V_{m}I_{m}}{2}-\frac{V_{m}I_{m}}{2}\cos2\omega\:t$$3 − phase power, $$p=\sqrt{3}(V_{L}I_{L}\cos\varphi)$$In the 3-phase system, a rotating magnetic field can be created in stationary windings, whereas this cannot be done in a single phase system.For the same rating, ... Read More

Absolute Magnetic PermeabilityThe absolute (or actual) magnetic permeability of a material is its conductivity for the magnetic flux. It is denoted by a Greek letter μ ‘(mu)’ and measured in Henry per meters (H/m). Thus, Absolute permeability of material, $$\mu=\mu_{0}\mu_{r}\:H/m$$Where, μ0 = absolute permeability of air or vacuum.μr = relative permeability of the material.The higher the permeability of a magnetic material, the greater its conductivity for magnetic flux and vice-versa.Air or vacuum is the poorest conductor of the magnetic flux. The absolute magnetic permeability of the air is μ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m . The absolute permeability (μ) of a ... Read More

What is Link Budget Design?A wireless link budget is drafted prior to data transmission to anticipate the possible losses that could occur during transmission of data through the channel. A link budget takes into account all forms of possible losses including path loss, atmospheric absorption loss and channel noise. Link budget is very commonly used in satellite communications.E/S – Earth Station; U/L – Uplink; D/L – Downlink; BER – Bit Error Rate; C/N – Carrier to Noise Ratio; G/T- Ratio of receiver antenna gain and receiver system noise temperatureWhat is a Satellite Link Budget?Satellites deliver vital information global weather, global ... Read More

Some of the factors that decide the performance of a wireless link include transmission power, transmission bandwidth, and antenna gain and signal to noise also increases and hence the SNR decreases. ratio. Let us discuss the performance of a wireless link in view of short range and long range communications separately. The ultimate aim is that our transmitted signal should combat the channel noise and successfully reach the receiver without fading out.Design Factors – Transmission Power and Channel NoiseTransmission PowerIn general, the power of the transmitted signal must be above a certain threshold to ensure that the signal doesn’t get ... Read More