Data Structure
Networking
RDBMS
Operating System
Java
MS Excel
iOS
HTML
CSS
Android
Python
C Programming
C++
C#
MongoDB
MySQL
Javascript
PHP
Economics & Finance
WiFi Protected Access (WPA) is a security protocol designed to protect wireless networks from unauthorized access. Introduced in 2003, WPA was created to replace the vulnerable Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) standard, which had significant security flaws that made it easily exploitable by attackers. WPA provided a crucial stepping stone in wireless security, offering stronger encryption and improved authentication mechanisms while the more comprehensive IEEE 802.11i standard was being finalized. Background and Development In the early 2000s, researchers discovered critical vulnerabilities in WEP that allowed attackers to crack the encryption in under a minute using techniques like the ... Read More
A network model represents the organization of multiple computers in a network. It describes how individual computers are interconnected and communicate with each other to share resources and services. Computer network architecture defines the structural design and operational framework that governs how networked systems interact. Let's explore the main types of network architectures. Centralized Computing Architecture In centralized computing architecture, one powerful computer (mainframe) serves multiple low-powered client devices. All processing power and data storage are concentrated in the central server. Central processing − All computational tasks are performed by the mainframe computer. Terminal connections ... Read More
Li-Fi (Light Fidelity) is a wireless communication technology that uses visible light as a medium to transmit data. Unlike traditional Wi-Fi that relies on radio waves, Li-Fi employs subtle fluctuations in LED light to send information from transmitter to receiver. The technology works by rapidly switching LED lights on and off at imperceptible speeds, creating binary codes through these fluctuations. A photodetector receives these light signals and decodes them back into digital data. Li-Fi can achieve speeds up to 100 Mbps in standard implementations, with parallel transmission potentially reaching over 10 Gbps. Li-Fi Communication ... Read More
Error-detecting codes are a sequence of numbers generated by specific procedures for detecting errors in data that has been transmitted over computer networks. These codes add redundant information to data to help identify transmission errors at the receiving end. When bits are transmitted over computer networks, they are subject to corruption due to interference, noise, and network problems. The corrupted bits lead to spurious data being received by the receiver and are called errors. Error-detecting codes ensure messages are encoded before transmission over noisy channels. The encoding is designed so that the decoder at the receiving end can ... Read More
Bit-map protocol is a collision-free protocol that operates in the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer of the OSI model. It resolves any possibility of collisions while multiple stations are contending for acquiring a shared channel for transmission. In this protocol, if a station wishes to transmit, it broadcasts itself before the actual transmission. This is an example of a Reservation Protocol, where stations reserve the channel before data transmission begins. Working Principle In this protocol, the contention period is divided into N slots, where N is the total number of stations sharing the channel. If a station ... Read More
The Bundle Protocol is a networking protocol designed for delay-tolerant networks (DTNs), where traditional networking protocols fail due to intermittent connectivity, high latency, or frequent disruptions. Unlike conventional protocols that require end-to-end connectivity, the Bundle Protocol uses a store-and-forward approach to deliver data across challenging network conditions. The protocol is based on data units called bundles, which can be stored at intermediate nodes for extended periods until a forwarding opportunity becomes available. This makes it particularly suitable for space communications, disaster response scenarios, and remote area networking where continuous connectivity cannot be guaranteed. Bundle ... Read More
There are various types of Ethernet cables that have evolved over time to meet different networking requirements. Each type offers distinct characteristics in terms of data speed, cable length, topology, and physical medium used. 10Base5 (Thick Ethernet) The first standard defined in IEEE 802.3 is 10Base5, also known as Thick Ethernet or Thicknet. It uses a bus topology with baseband signaling and thick coaxial cable. The data speed is 10 Mbps with a maximum segment length of 500 meters. The total bus length cannot exceed 2, 500 meters, allowing only five segments. Each station must be separated by ... Read More
Today, everyone uses digital devices to access websites and applications on the Internet. This has increased the need for cost-effective networks and better application delivery. To meet this demand, the Application Delivery Network (ADN) concept was developed. ADN reduces load times, solves IT problems faster, and ensures secure access to applications with proper visibility and availability. What is Application Delivery Network? An Application Delivery Network (ADN) is a network architecture that improves the delivery of web applications to end users across different locations and devices. It consists of three main components: Application Delivery Controllers (ADCs), WAN Optimization Controllers ... Read More
Tunnelling is a protocol for transferring data securely from one network to another. Using a method known as encapsulation, tunnelling allows private network communications to be sent across a public network, such as the Internet. Encapsulation enables data packets to appear as general traffic to a public network when they actually contain private data, allowing them to pass unnoticed. Note − Port forwarding is sometimes referred to as a form of tunnelling, though they are technically different concepts. Tunnelling Process Overview Private Data Encapsulation ... Read More
Reservation protocols are a class of protocols where stations wishing to transmit data announce their transmission intent before actual data transfer. These protocols operate in the medium access control (MAC) layer and transport layer of the OSI model to ensure collision-free communication. In these protocols, there is a contention period prior to transmission. During this period, each station broadcasts its desire for transmission. Once all stations announce themselves, one or more of them get the desired network resources based upon agreed criteria. Since each station has complete knowledge of whether every other station wants to transmit, all possibilities of ... Read More