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User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides a connectionless packet service that offers unreliable 'best effort' delivery. This represents that the packet's arrival is not guaranteed, and also there is no guarantee for the correct sequencing of forwarded packets.An application that does not require an acknowledgement of data receipt. For example, audio or video broadcasting used UDP.UDP is also used by application of the typical transmit of a small amount of data at one time. For example, UDP provides a protocol port to distinguish between multiple programs implemented on a single deviceEach UDP message includes both a destination port number and a ... Read More
TFTP represents the Trivial File Transfer Protocol. Some applications do not need the full functionality of TCP, nor can they afford the complexity. TFTP supports an inexpensive structure that does not require complex interactions between the client and the server. TFTP confine operations to simple File Transfer and does not support authentications.The benefit of using TFTP is that it enables bootstrapping code to use the similar underlying TCP/IP protocols that the operating framework uses once it starts execution. Thus it is the possibility for a device to bootstrap from a server on another physical network.TFTP does not have a dependable ... Read More
The two types of Connections in FTP are as follows −Control ConnectionThere are two steps −The server issues a positive open on the well-known port 21 and waits for a client.The client uses an ephemeral port and issues an active open.The connection remains open during the whole process.Data ConnectionThe data connection facilitates the well-known port 20 at the server site. The following steps display how FTP creates a data connection.The user, not the server, issues a passive open using an ephemeral port.The client assigns this port number to the server using the PORT command.The server receives the port number and ... Read More
ARC NET stands for Attached Resources Computing Network. It is the central LAN topology in which coaxial cables are used. It is very similar to a thin net (thin Ethernet) in appearance, but the cable used in it is 93 ohm RG-62 A/U cable which is not interchangeable with the thin net cable.ARC NET is a topology that uses a token passing method. It is an old token-based topology that is rarely used nowadays. ARC NET was developed before the token ring networks, and initially, it used the bus topology to connect the workstations.The network operates at 2.5 Mbps and ... Read More
It makes use of the lower gigahertz frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. These frequencies are higher than radio frequencies, and they make better throughput and execution. This transmission can be further classified as Terrestrial or Satellite.Types of Microwave TransmissionThere are two types of microwave transmission, which are as follows.Terrestrial Microwave TransmissionThese systems use directional parabolic antennas to transmit and receive signals in the lower gigahertz range, as shown in the figure. These signals are highly focussed and travel insight. Relay towers can extend signals. Smaller terrestrial microwaves systems can be used inside a building. Some microwave LANS works at low ... Read More
Radio waves have frequencies between 10 kHz and 1 gigahertz. The range of electromagnetic spectrum between 10 kHz and 1 GHz is known as radiofrequency (RF).Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna sends radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This defines that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.A sending antenna sends waves that any receiving antenna can receive. It is based on the wavelength, strength, and purpose of transmission. There are various types of antennas, as display in the figure.Radio waves are those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long ... Read More
The electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are known as a microwave. Microwave systems use very high-frequency radio or television signals to transmit data through space. Therefore, the transmitter and receiver of a microwaves system, which is mounted on very high towers, should be invisible to each other, i.e., they both should be in a line-of-sight. Moreover, the signals become weak after travelling a certain distance and require power amplification.Microwave systems can carry large quantities of data at high rates of speed. The data transmission rate is about 16 gps (Gigabits per second). A microwave system can ... Read More
In this type of media, the signal propagates in the form of electromagnetic waves without the requirement of solid media, i.e., in the air. There are also called wireless media.The electromagnetic spectrum used for wireless communication is shown in the figure −Propagation MethodsThe unguided signals can travel from the transmitter to the receiver in many different ways. The three most important methods are −Ground Wave PropagationSKY PropagationSpace propagation or line of sight propagationBandsThe electromagnetic spectrum is divided into several subbands. The following table shows various frequency bands corresponding to multiple types of propagation and application −Electromagnetic Waves BandNameFrequencyWavelengthExtremely Low Frequency ... Read More
A fibre optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the structure of light signals. The structure of an optical fibre cable is displayed in the figure. It involves an inner glass core surrounded by a glass cladding that reflects the light into the core. Each fibre is encircled by a plastic jacket.In fibre optics, semiconductor lasers transmit data in the form of light along with hair-thin glass (optical) fibres at the speed of light (186, 000 miles second) with no significant loss of intensity over very long distances. The system includes fibre optic cables that ... Read More
Co-axial includes a central copper wire surrounded by PVC insulation over which a copper mesh sleeve is placed. Again, the metal sleeve is shielded by an outer shield of thick PVC material, as shown in the figure.The coaxial cable structure provides it with the right mixture of high bandwidth and good noise community. For 1 km cables, a data price of 10 Mbps is feasible. Higher data rates are applicable for shorter cables. Co-axial cables are generally used for cable TV and long-distance transmission within the telephone system.Characteristics of Co-axial CableThe main characteristics of the coaxial cable are as follows ... Read More