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The Hamming code can be used to the data units of any length when we consider the two codewords which have the same length. The Hamming distance between two codewords is represented as the number of positions in which their specific item differs.ExampleHamming Distance is 3.Hamming code is also known as linear block code. The family of (n, k) hamming codes for m is defined.Block length n=2m-1.The number of message bits k=2m-m-1.Number of Parity Bits = n-k=m.Where m≥3Minimum distancemin=3.Code rate = Code efficiency = $\frac{k}{n} = \frac{2^{m}-m-1}{2^{m}-1} = 1 - \frac{m}{2^{m}-1}$ of m>> 1then, code rate r=1 where k is ... Read More
In the detection method, only the error can be detected. Still, in the error correction method, the errors are corrected automatically at the receiver end and no need for re-transmission. The burst error correction is very limited to 2 bits only.Each kbit block of data is added with redundant bits that make a codeword of n bits (n > k). A forward error correction encoder is used on the transmission end. Then, the codeword is transmitted. The signal is demodulated to make a bit string equivalent to the initial codeword to include the errors at the receiver.If no bit error, ... Read More
Parity Bit is the simplest and frequently used method for detecting an error. In this method, we have to join a parity bit to the end of the data structure. The bit is so chosen that the weight of codeword is either even or odd of, i.e. V is the cost of this bit is chosen therefore that the character has an even number of 1's called even parity or an odd number of 1's known as odd parity.For Example, If the transmitter is transmitting 1110001 and using odd parity. It willappend 1 in sorting. The receiver determines the received ... Read More
There are a few effects of errors which are as follows −Attenuation: Due to error, the signal may get attenuated, i.e., the data may be costly in the extreme case.Delay Distortion: Due to this error at the receiving end, the wave is distorted due to a delay in transmission.Interference in voice communication can occur due to an error in the signal.Echo can be produced because the sender cannot hear the receivers answer or voice.Cross talk can occur because of the error in the broadcasted signal. Due to this, the faint voice of another party may disturb your signal.Data Error Rate: (P10):Probability that ... Read More
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides a connectionless packet service that offers unreliable 'best effort' delivery. This represents that the packet's arrival is not guaranteed, and also there is no guarantee for the correct sequencing of forwarded packets.An application that does not require an acknowledgement of data receipt. For example, audio or video broadcasting used UDP.UDP is also used by application of the typical transmit of a small amount of data at one time. For example, UDP provides a protocol port to distinguish between multiple programs implemented on a single deviceEach UDP message includes both a destination port number and a ... Read More
TFTP represents the Trivial File Transfer Protocol. Some applications do not need the full functionality of TCP, nor can they afford the complexity. TFTP supports an inexpensive structure that does not require complex interactions between the client and the server. TFTP confine operations to simple File Transfer and does not support authentications.The benefit of using TFTP is that it enables bootstrapping code to use the similar underlying TCP/IP protocols that the operating framework uses once it starts execution. Thus it is the possibility for a device to bootstrap from a server on another physical network.TFTP does not have a dependable ... Read More
The two types of Connections in FTP are as follows −Control ConnectionThere are two steps −The server issues a positive open on the well-known port 21 and waits for a client.The client uses an ephemeral port and issues an active open.The connection remains open during the whole process.Data ConnectionThe data connection facilitates the well-known port 20 at the server site. The following steps display how FTP creates a data connection.The user, not the server, issues a passive open using an ephemeral port.The client assigns this port number to the server using the PORT command.The server receives the port number and ... Read More
ARC NET stands for Attached Resources Computing Network. It is the central LAN topology in which coaxial cables are used. It is very similar to a thin net (thin Ethernet) in appearance, but the cable used in it is 93 ohm RG-62 A/U cable which is not interchangeable with the thin net cable.ARC NET is a topology that uses a token passing method. It is an old token-based topology that is rarely used nowadays. ARC NET was developed before the token ring networks, and initially, it used the bus topology to connect the workstations.The network operates at 2.5 Mbps and ... Read More
It makes use of the lower gigahertz frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum. These frequencies are higher than radio frequencies, and they make better throughput and execution. This transmission can be further classified as Terrestrial or Satellite.Types of Microwave TransmissionThere are two types of microwave transmission, which are as follows.Terrestrial Microwave TransmissionThese systems use directional parabolic antennas to transmit and receive signals in the lower gigahertz range, as shown in the figure. These signals are highly focussed and travel insight. Relay towers can extend signals. Smaller terrestrial microwaves systems can be used inside a building. Some microwave LANS works at low ... Read More
Radio waves have frequencies between 10 kHz and 1 gigahertz. The range of electromagnetic spectrum between 10 kHz and 1 GHz is known as radiofrequency (RF).Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna sends radio waves, they are propagated in all directions. This defines that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned.A sending antenna sends waves that any receiving antenna can receive. It is based on the wavelength, strength, and purpose of transmission. There are various types of antennas, as display in the figure.Radio waves are those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long ... Read More