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Data manipulation instructions have computational capabilities. They perform arithmetic, logic, and shift operations on data.There are three types of data manipulation instructions are as follows −Arithmetic InstructionsArithmetic operations include addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. Some computers provide instructions only for addition and subtraction operations and generate multiplication and division operations from these two operations. Each instruction is represented by a mnemonic symbol.The table shows some of the arithmetic instructions and their respective mnemonic symbols.Arithmetic InstructionsNameMnemonic SymbolsLoadLDStoreSTMoveMOVExchangeXCHInputInOutputOUTPushPUSHPopPOPThe description of these instructions is as follows −Increment − The increment instruction adds 1 to the value stored in the register or memory word.Decrement ... Read More
Data transfer instructions transfer the data between memory and processor registers, processor registers, and I/O devices, and from one processor register to another. There are eight commonly used data transfer instructions. Each instruction is represented by a mnemonic symbol.The table shows the eight data transfer instructions and their respective mnemonic symbols.Data Transfer InstructionsNameMnemonic SymbolsLoadLDStoreSTMoveMOVExchangeXCHInputInOutputOUTPushPUSHPopPOPThe instructions can be described as follows −Load − The load instruction is used to transfer data from the memory to a processor register, which is usually an accumulator.Store − The store instruction transfers data from processor registers to memory.Move − The move instruction transfers data from ... Read More
Just like in C and C++, you need to qualify a variable with the volatile keyword if it can be modified within an interrupt routine.When you qualify a variable as volatile, this is what happens behind the scenes −The compiler gets instructed that the variable should be loaded into the RAM and not the storage register (where program variables are generally stored/manipulated)This ensures that any changes to the variable outside of the loop() (for example in the interrupt service routine), get immediately reflected in the loop()If you have a variable larger than a byte in size (int or long), then ... Read More
A static variable is a special kind of variable; it is allocated memory 'statically'. Its lifetime is the entire run of the program. It is specific to a function, i.e., only the function that defined it can access it. However, it doesn't get destroyed after the function call ends. It preserves its value between successive function calls. It is created and initialized the first time a function is called. In the next function call, it is not created again. It just exists.ExampleTake a look at the following example.void setup() { Serial.begin(9600); Serial.println(); } void loop() { staticFunctionDemo(); ... Read More
When going through Arduino codes, you may come across some numbers which are followed by either a U or an L or both (or in small caps, u and l). These are formatters, which force integer constants to be of a specific format. U forces an integer constant to be of the unsigned data format, while L forces the integer constant to be of the long data format.These formatters can be used when defining variables, as well as using some integer values directly in a formula.Exampleint a = 33u; # define b 33ul int c = a*1000L;All of the above ... Read More
Instructions in a computer can be of multiple lengths with a variable number of addresses. The various address fields in the instruction format of a computer vary as per the organization of its registers. It depends on the multiple address fields the instruction can be categorized as three address instructions, two address instructions, one address instruction, and zero address instruction.Three Address InstructionsThe general format of a three address instruction is defined as −operation source 1, source 2, destinationADD A, B, Cwhere A, B, and C are the three variables that are authorized to a different area in the memory. ‘ADD’ ... Read More
The same operators that are used for comparing integers like , >=, 'A'.ExampleTake a look at the following example.void setup() { Serial.begin(9600); Serial.println(); String s1 = "Hello"; String s2 = "hello"; String s3 = "100"; String s4 = "90"; if (s1 > s2) { Serial.println("s1 is greater than s2"); } else if(s2 > s1) { Serial.println("s2 is greater than s1"); } if (s3 > s4) { Serial.println("s3 is greater than s4"); } else if(s4 > s3) { ... Read More
The getBytes() function helps copy the content of a String to a byte array. The syntax is −string1.getBytes(buf, len)where, string1 is the string whose content you want to copy to a byte array, buf is the byte array, andlen is the length of content to be copied.ExampleThe following example illustrates how to use this function −byte buf[10]; void setup() { Serial.begin(9600); Serial.println(); String s1 = "Hello World"; s1.getBytes(buf, 5); for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) { Serial.println(buf[i]); } } void loop() { }OutputThe Serial Monitor output is shown ... Read More
A stack can be executed in the CPU by analyzing an area of the computer memory to a stack operation and utilizing a processor register as a stack pointer. In this method, it is performed in a random access memory connected to the CPU.An area of the computer memory is broken into three segments such as program, data, and stack. The address of the next instruction in the program is saved in the pointer Program Counter (PC). The Address Register (AR) points to an array of the information. SP continually influences the address of the element present at the top ... Read More
The isControl() function is used to determine if a character is a control character. A control character or a non-printing character (NPC) is a code point (a number) in a character set that does not represent a written symbol. All entries in the ASCII table below code 32 are of this kind. This includes characters like '', '\t', and so on.SyntaxThe syntax of the isControl function is as follows −isControl(myChar)Where myChar is the character being evaluated. If it is a control character, this function returns True, otherwise False.ExampleThe following example illustrates how to use this function −void setup() { ... Read More