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The Z-transform (ZT) is a mathematical tool which is used to convert the difference equations in time domain into the algebraic equations in z-domain.Mathematically, if $\mathrm{\mathit{x\left ( n \right )}}$ is a discrete-time signal or sequence, then its bilateral or two-sided Z-transform is defined as −$$\mathrm{\mathit{Z\left [ x\left ( n \right ) \right ]\mathrm{\, =\, }X\left ( z \right )\mathrm{\, =\, }\sum_{n\mathrm{\, =\, }-\infty }^{\infty }x\left ( n \right )z^{-n}}}$$Where, z is a complex variable.Also, the unilateral or one-sided z-transform is defined as −$$\mathrm{\mathit{Z\left [ x\left ( n \right ) \right ]\mathrm{\, =\, }X\left ( z \right )\mathrm{\, =\, }\sum_{n\mathrm{\, ... Read More
Z-TransformThe Z-transform (ZT) is a mathematical tool which is used to convert the difference equations in time domain into the algebraic equations in z-domain.Mathematically, if $\mathrm{\mathit{x\left ( n \right )}}$ is a discrete-time signal or sequence, then its bilateral or two-sided Z-transform is defined as −$$\mathrm{\mathit{Z\left [ x\left ( n \right ) \right ]\mathrm{\, =\, }X\left ( z \right )\mathrm{\, =\, }\sum_{n\mathrm{\, =\, }-\infty }^{\infty }x\left ( n \right )z^{-n}}}$$Where, z is a complex variable.Also, the unilateral or one-sided z-transform is defined as −$$\mathrm{\mathit{Z\left [ x\left ( n \right ) \right ]\mathrm{\, =\, }X\left ( z \right )\mathrm{\, =\, }\sum_{n\mathrm{\, ... Read More
The sequences having a finite number of samples are called the finite duration sequences. The finite duration sequences may be of following three types viz. −Right-Hand SequencesLeft-Hand SequencesTwo-Sided SequencesRight-Hand SequenceA sequence for which $\mathrm{\mathit{x\left ( n \right )}}$ = 0 for $\mathit{n}$ < $\mathit{n_{\mathrm{0}}}$ where $\mathit{n_{\mathrm{0}}}$ may be positive or negative but finite, is called the right hand sequence. If $\mathit{n_{\mathrm{0}}}$ ≥ 0, the resulting sequence is a causal sequence. The ROC of a causal sequence is the entire z-plane except at 𝑧 = 0.Numerical Example (1)Find the ROC and Z-Transform of the causal sequence.$$\mathrm{\mathit{x\left ( n \right )}\mathrm{\, =\, ... Read More
Fourier TransformThe Fourier transform is a transformation technique which is used to transform the signals from continuous-time domain to the corresponding frequency domain.Mathematically, if $\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}$ is a continuous-time domain function, then its Fourier transform is given by, $$\mathrm{\mathit{F}\mathrm{\left[\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\right]}\:\mathrm{=}\:\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{\omega }\right)}\:\mathrm{=}\:\int_{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\mathit{e^{-\mathit{j\omega t}}\:\mathit{dt}} \:\:\:\:\:\:...(1)}$$Laplace TransformThe Laplace transform is a mathematical tool which is used to convert the differential equation in time domain into the algebraic equations in the frequency domain or s-domain.Mathematically, if $\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}$ is a time domain function, then its Laplace transform is defined as −$$\mathrm{\mathit{L}\mathrm{\left[\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\right]}\:\mathrm{=}\:\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{s}\right)}\:\mathrm{=}\:\int_{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\mathit{e^{-\mathit{st}}\:\mathit{dt}}\:\:\:\:\:\:...(2)}$$Where, s is a complex variable and it is given by, $$\mathrm{\mathit{s}\:\mathrm{=}\:\sigma \:\mathrm{+}\:\mathit{j\omega}}$$Relation ... Read More
Z-TransformThe Z-transform (ZT) is a mathematical tool which is used to convert the difference equations in time domain into the algebraic equations in z-domain.Mathematically, if $\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{n}\right)}$ is a discrete-time signal or sequence, then its bilateral or two-sided Z-transform is defined as −$$\mathrm{\mathit{Z}\mathrm{\left[\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{n}\right)}\right]}\:\mathrm{=}\:\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{z}\right)}\:\mathrm{=}\sum_{\mathit{n=-\infty }}^{\infty}\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{n}\right)}\mathit{z^{-\mathit{n}}}\:\:\:\:\:\:...(1)}$$Where, z is a complex variable.Also, the unilateral or one-sided z-transform is defined as −$$\mathrm{\mathit{Z}\mathrm{\left[\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{n}\right)}\right]}\:\mathrm{=}\:\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{z}\right)}\:\mathrm{=}\sum_{\mathit{n=\mathrm{0} }}^{\infty}\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{n}\right)}\mathit{z^{-\mathit{n}}}\:\:\:\:\:\:...(2)}$$Laplace TransformThe Laplace transform is a mathematical tool which is used to convert the differential equation in time domain into the algebraic equations in the frequency domain or s-domain.Mathematically, if $\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}$ is a time domain function, then its Laplace transform is defined as ... Read More
Laplace TransformThe Laplace transform is a mathematical tool which is used to convert the differential equation in time domain into the algebraic equations in the frequency domain or s-domain.Mathematically, if $\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}$ is a time domain function, then its Laplace transform is defined as −$$\mathrm{\mathit{L}\mathrm{\left[\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\right]}\:\mathrm{=}\:\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{s}\right)}\:\mathrm{=}\:\int_{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\mathit{e^{-\mathit{st}}\:\mathit{dt}}\:\:\:\:\:\:...(1)}$$Equation (1) gives the bilateral Laplace transform of the function $\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}$. But for the causal signals, the unilateral Laplace transform is applied, which is defined as, $$\mathrm{\mathit{L}\mathrm{\left[\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\right]}\:\mathrm{=}\:\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{s}\right)}\:\mathrm{=}\:\int_{\mathrm{0}}^{\infty }\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\mathit{e^{-\mathit{st}}\:\mathit{dt}}\:\:\:\:\:\:...(2)}$$Time Shifting Property of Laplace TransformStatement - The time shifting property of Laplace transform states that a shift of t0 in time domain corresponds to the multiplication by ... Read More
Laplace TransformThe Laplace transform is a mathematical tool which is used to convert the differential equation in time domain into the algebraic equations in the frequency domain or s-domain.Mathematically, if $\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}$ is a time domain function, then its Laplace transform is defined as −$$\mathrm{\mathit{L}\mathrm{\left[\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\right]}\:\mathrm{=}\:\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{s}\right)}\:\mathrm{=}\:\int_{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\mathit{e^{-\mathit{st}}\:\mathit{dt}}\:\:\:\:\:\:...(1)}$$Equation (1) gives the bilateral Laplace transform of the function $\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}$. But for the causal signals, the unilateral Laplace transform is applied, which is defined as −$$\mathrm{\mathit{L}\mathrm{\left[\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\right]}\:\mathrm{=}\:\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{s}\right)}\:\mathrm{=}\:\int_{\mathrm{0}}^{\infty }\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\mathit{e^{-\mathit{st}}\:\mathit{dt}}\:\:\:\:\:\:...(2)}$$Time Scaling Property of Laplace TransformStatement - The time scaling property of Laplace transform states that if, $$\mathrm{\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\overset{\mathit{LT}}{\leftrightarrow}\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{s}\right)}}$$Then$$\mathrm{\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{at}\right)}\overset{\mathit{LT}}{\leftrightarrow}\frac{1}{\left|\mathit{a}\right|}\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left( \frac{\mathit{s}}{\mathit{a}}\right )}}$$ProofFrom the definition of Laplace transform, we have, $$\mathrm{\mathit{L}\mathrm{\left[\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\right]}\:\mathrm{=}\:\int_{\mathrm{0}}^{\infty ... Read More
Laplace TransformThe Laplace transform is a mathematical tool which is used to convert the differential equation in time domain into the algebraic equations in the frequency domain or s-domain.Mathematically, if $\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}$ is a time domain function, then its Laplace transform is defined as −$$\mathrm{\mathit{L}\mathrm{\left[\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\right]}\:\mathrm{=}\:\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{s}\right)}\:\mathrm{=}\:\int_{-\infty }^{\infty }\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\mathit{e^{-\mathit{st}}\:\mathit{dt}}\:\:\:\:\:\:...(1)}$$Integration in Time Domain Property of Laplace TransformStatement - The time integration property of Laplace transform states that if$$\mathrm{\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\overset{\mathit{LT}}{\leftrightarrow}\mathit{X}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{s}\right)}}$$Then$$\mathrm{\int_{-\infty}^{\mathit{t}}\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{\tau }\right)}\mathit{d\tau}\overset{\mathit{LT}}{\leftrightarrow}\frac{\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{s}\right)}}{\mathit{s}}\:\mathrm{+}\:\int_{-\infty}^{\mathrm{0}}\frac{\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{\tau }\right)}}{\mathit{s}}\:\mathit{d\tau}}$$ProofConsider a function $\mathit{y}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}$ as, $$\mathrm{\mathit{y}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\:\mathrm{=}\:\int_{-\infty }^{\mathit{t}}\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{\tau }\right)}\:\mathit{d\tau}}$$Taking differentiation on both sides with respect to time, we have, $$\mathrm{\frac{\mathit{d\mathit{y}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}}}{\mathit{dt}}\:\mathrm{=}\:\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}\:\:\:\:\:\:...(2)}$$Also, $$\mathrm{\mathit{y}\mathrm{\left(\mathrm{0}^{-}\right)}\:\mathrm{=}\:\int_{-\infty }^{\mathrm{0}}\mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{\tau }\right)}\:\mathit{d\tau}\:\:\:\:\:\:...(3)}$$Taking the Laplace transform of equation (2), we get, $$\mathrm{\mathit{L}\mathrm{\left[ \frac{\mathit{d\mathit{y}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)}}}{\mathit{dt}}\right ]}\:\mathrm{=}\:\mathit{L}\mathrm{\left [ \mathit{x}\mathrm{\left(\mathit{t}\right)} ... Read More
The dnsPromises.getServers() method returns an array of IP address strings, formatted across RFC 5952. These IP strings are currently configured for DNS configurations. The string will include a port only if a custom port is used.SyntaxdnsPromises.getServers( )Example 1Create a file with the name "getServers.js" and copy the following code snippet. After creating the file, use the command "node getServers.js" to run this code as shown in the example below −// dnsPromises.getServers() Demo Example // Importing promises from dns module const { Resolver } = require('dns').promises; // Initializing resolver constructor const dnsPromises = new Resolver(); // Creating async ... Read More
When a Node.js process is spawned with an IPC channel, the process.disconnect() method will close that IPC channel to the parent process, allowing the child process to exit or finish gracefully. The process will exit once there are no other connections keeping it alive.Syntaxprocess.disconnect()Example 1Create two files with the names "parent.js" and "child.js" and copy the following code snippets. After creating the file, use the command "node parent.js" to run parent.js.parent.js// process.channel Property Demo Example // Importing the child_process modules const fork = require('child_process').fork; // Attaching the child process file const child_file = 'child.js'; // Spawning/calling child ... Read More