Found 132 Articles for Academic

Introduction Mutualism is a mutual kind of relationship, that is often found amongst all living organisms. In mutualism, all living organisms such as humans, animals, and birds are engaged. Some of the important microorganisms, such as fungi, viruses and bacteria’s are engaged in this process at certain stages in their life circle. What is mutualism? Mutualism is an important process in which a specific type of relationship between symbiont and a host is associated. In this process, both of the engaged organisms are benefited as no such harmful actions are carried out by any of the organisms. This mutual interaction ... Read More

Introduction Genetic mutations are the changes in the DNA sequences which mainly take place during the time of cell division. During the time of cell copies, the total process happens. DNA of a body symbolizes the formation as well as the function of a body. Genetic mutations also lead to different genetic conditions such as cancer. Several external factors are also very much affected the DNA sequences. What are Mutations? The DNA sequences provide information about the formation of cells and perform as per their functions. In this case, a DNA sequence is not in the proper place, the total ... Read More

Introduction In the field of genetics, mutagen can be physical, chemical or biological agents present in the genetic material of an organism, to be precise in the DNA. The presence of these products is responsible for enhancing the rate of mutations in the cells. These mutations are often harmful to the cells and can cause very adverse effects on the health of an individual. Some of the common examples of mutagens are radioactive products, xrays, and chemicals and ultraviolet radiation. What are mutagens? Mutagens are termed the products that are harmful to the genetic material, especially DNA, these results in ... Read More

Introduction Microbiology is the study of different microbes such as bacteria, viruses, slime molds, fungi, and protozoans. Microbes can be unicellular, multicellular, or acellular. The study of microorganisms that modify, colonize, contaminate or process food is known as food microbiology. History of Food Microbiology Food history varies with culture, environment, and social and economic impacts. The history of Food Microbiology is classified based on time and periods. In 7000 BC there was evidence of the manufacturing of beer. The wine was found to be manufactured in about 3500 BC. For the first time, food spoilage was recorded in 6000 ... Read More

Introduction Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) is another genetic material that is found in living organisms. It is a single-stranded polymer of nucleotides. Each nucleotide contains a ribose sugar moiety, a nitrogen base, and a phosphate group. Nitrogen bases are Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil which are joined to the sugar by glycosidic bonds, and the backbone of RNA is made of a phosphodiester bond, similar to DNA. Though it is a single stranded structure it can fold upon itself, show complementary base pairing within, and form a 3D structure. Types of RNA There are three types of RNA’s found namely ... Read More

Introduction Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are considered as the most important nucleic acids and this has been confirmed by many biologists. The nucleotide is the basic structural constitution of nucleic acid i.e. DNA and RNA. In RNA interference the small piece of RNA shut down the protein translation by binding mRNA that codes for those proteins. The particular mRNA codes for protein synthesis. RNA interference (RNAi) regulates the post-transcriptional mechanism of genes. In this process, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) induce the sequence-specific degradation of homologous messenger (mRNA). RNA interference is widely used in research in biology as ... Read More

Introduction The word rigor mortis is made up of two words- ‘Rigor’ means ‘stiffening’ or ‘hardening’ and ‘mortis’ means ‘mortality’. It is a part of the process that takes place after death and can help to determine the time of death. What is Rigor mortis?Rigor mortis is the condition after death where muscles of the body get stiff due to some chemical reaction that occurs in the myofibrils (fibres tend to get shorter). In this stage, single-cell death occurs. The condition in which rigor mortis occurs in the body indicates in what position the body was at the time of ... Read More

Introduction Respiration is the process of getting oxygen into the body from the outer environment and relieving carbon dioxide from the body to the outer environment. These gases play an important role in physiological processes. The ratio of carbon dioxide released to the oxygen absorbed is called the Respiratory Quotient, which can be abbreviated as RQ. The respiratory quotient can be called as respiratory ratio or respiratory coefficient also. What is a Respiratory Quotient? A respiratory quotient is a logarithmic number used to calculate basal metabolic rate by the ratio of carbon dioxide liberated to oxygen absorbed. $$\mathrm{RQ=CO_{2}\:liberated/O_{2}\:absorbed}$$ With ... Read More

Introduction Muscles are made up of elastic tissue. In the human body, more than six hundred muscles are present. Thousands of muscle fibers constitute elastic tissues. Muscle strength depends on the presence of fibers. These muscles work together with the nerve fibers to do all voluntary and involuntary functions of the body. There are three types of muscles: skeletal muscles, striated muscles, and smooth muscles. Muscular dystrophy is the damage and weakening of the muscles. In this tutorial, we will learn about muscular dystrophy in depth. Dystrophy Meaning Dystrophy generally occurs due to malnutrition or diseases. Muscular dystrophy is the ... Read More

Introduction Proteins are very complex substances that are present in every living organism. Proteins have high nutritional values which play a direct role in the chemical process which is necessary for life. For example, muscles, for instance, contain about 30% protein, the liver 20 to 30%, and red blood cells 30%. Proteins are the most important element of the striated skeleton muscle. Hair, bone, organs, and tissues contain a higher percentage of protein. What are the Muscle Proteins? The movement of the human body is dependent on the skeletal muscles, that are connected to the bones. Proteins are the fundamental ... Read More