Branches of Geography

Geography is one of the disciplines which has an inseparable relationship with both natural science (i.e. physical geography) and social science (i.e. human geography). And interestingly, these two categories of geography are not dependent on each other, but rather have a distinct and independent identity. So, in this article, we will study the two branches of geography, namely, physical geography (related to natural science) and human geography (related to social science).

Classification of Geography

Primarily, following are the two approaches that have been adopted to cassify geography −

Systematic Approach

Alexander von Humboldt, the German geographer (1769–1859), first introduced the systematic approach, under which he suggested studying a phenomenon on a global level in totality and then identifying the typology or/and focusing on the study of its spatial patterns and characteristics. For example, the study of climate; so, first study the climates of the whole world in totality and then do the classification on a regional level.

Regional Approach

Karl Ritter, the German geographer and contemporary of Humboldt (1779–1859), first introduced the regional approach, under which the world is first divided into regions and then all the geographical phenomena of a single region are studied. Likewise, all the classified regions, are studied separately.

Now, based on these two approaches, let’s study the classification of geography −

Based on Systematic Approach

Based on the systematic approach, geography is classified as −

Now, let’s discuss each one of them separately −

• Physical Geography − The study of geography begins with physical geography, which focuses on the study of the origin and evolution of the planet Earth, its atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere. Further, it also studies the structure and composition of the earth; the surface land forms of the earth and their affecting agents; the composition and characteristics of the atmosphere and hydrosphere.

Because of having such comprehensive study areas, physical geography is further classified into the following branches −

• Geomorphology

• Climatology

• Oceanography

• Soil Geography

• Biogeography

• Environmental Geography

• Palaeogeography

Let’s discuss each one of them separately in brief −

Geomorphology

Geomorphology is the branch of physical geography that keeps a relationship with one of the disciplines of natural science, that is, geology. Its major areas of study are: the structure and composition of the earth; various landforms of the earth’s surface and their affecting agents; and movements of plates (plate tectonics). Furthermore, geomorphology also analyses and interprets the history of various landforms and predicts future changes.

Climatology

The study of climatology focuses on all those phenomena that consistently or/and periodically keep on happening in the earth’s atmosphere, such as heat budget (solar radiation coming on the earth’s surface and then reflecting back to space); various wind systems, atmospheric pressure, humidity, weather systems, temperature of the atmosphere; structure and characteristics of the atmosphere and different types of climates found in respective geographic regions. Further, based on the past studies and present patterns, it also investigates and predicts the future climate of the world.

Oceanography

The study of oceanography focuses on the composition and distribution of oceans and seas. Its area of study is pretty wide and diversified, which includes geographical expansion; temperature, salinity, waves, currents, and tides of the oceans and seas. It also studies the geology of sea floor; biodiversity; and natural resources found inside the oceans and seas.

Soil Geography

Also known as pedology, soil geography focuses on the study of the distribution of soils in different geographic regions of the world. Further, it studies pedogenesis (formation of soils), soil morphology (structure of soil, specifically soil profile), and soil classification and explains why a particular type of soil is found in a specific geographic region.

Biogeography

An interdisciplinary branch of geography that focuses on the study of the distribution of various flora and fauna along with their respective ecosystems on a geological time scale. Further, it investigates and explains, why a specific organism is found in a particular type of geographic region. The branch of biogeography that deals with flora (plant kingdom), is known as Phytogeography, and the branch of biogeography that deals with fauna (animal kingdom), is known as Zoogeography.

Environmental Geography

A branch of geography that bridges the gap between physical geography and human geography by investigating and interpreting human interactions with their environment in relation to space and time.

Palaeogeography

Based on the continental drift theory, plate tectonic theory, and isostasy, palaeogeography focuses on the study of different positions and distributions of continents on a geological time scale.

Human Geography

Ellsworth Huntington defines human geography as −

“The study of the nature and distribution of the relationships between geographical environment and human activities and qualities.”

We cannot assume the socio-cultural environment independently, as it is inseparably related to the immediate physical environment. In fact, almost every human activity is guided and supervised by the physical environment. In 1923, the American Geographer, Borrows defined it as ‘geography is the study of human ecology.’ Further, along with the spatial distribution of population and its interactions with the environment, human geography analyses and explains the different types of races, tribal groups, and other practices of caste system. It also studies their different languages and other cultural aspects, including food habits, clothing, and different occupations.

Human geography is an umbrella term; therefore, it is further classified into the following branches −

Let’s discuss each one of them (separately) in brief −

Social Geography

The branch of human geography that focuses on the study of socio-cultural environment and other related activities in different geographic regions. It further investigates and interprets that how cultures, tradition, norms, religions, occupations, economy, and even governments vary or remain similar in different geographic regions and also explains, why such disparity occurs. Social Geography, sometimes, is also known as Cultural Geography.

Population and Settlement Geography

This is the branch of human geography that deals with the variation in the spatial distribution of the population, variations in its growth rate, birth rate, death rate, heterogeneous or homogenous composition of population, and the migration of people from one place to another. It also investigates some of the significant issues related to population, such as differential patterns of growth rate, population density, sex-ratio, occupational structure, emigration, and immigration, along with their reasons and impacts

Economic Geography

Economic Geography is one of the dynamic branches of human geography that deals with the different economic activities that people engage in different geographic regions. It further analyses and explains the relationship between a specific economic activity and its physical environment. Because of its being diverse in nature, economic geography is further classified into the following sub-branches −

Historical Geography

The branch of human geography that deals with the changing patterns of socio-cultural practices and changes in the physical environment in reference to time and space, is known as historical geography.

Political Geography

Primarily, political geography focuses on the study of national and international boundaries, international relations (especially regarding space and boundaries), delimitations of electoral constituencies, etc. It further, investigates and explains different political phenomena in reference to time and space. It has a few specified sub-branches, which include geopolitics, electoral geography, and military geography.

Some other branches of human geography are −

• Industrial Geography − it is the study of various industries, their establishment, and the management of their raw materials and manufactured products.

• Agricultural Geography − it is the study of various agricultural practices and their interactions with the physical environment.

• Geography of Natural Resources − it is the study of various types and distributions of natural resources and their interactions with the physical environment.

• Transport and Communication Geography − study of different types of transport systems, such as railways, roadways, airways, and waterways. And, it also studies about the advanced communication systems.

• Geography of International Trade − it is the study of export and import of various agricultural and industrial products.

Methods & Techniques

Methods and Techniques is the name given to some essential techniques, which are used to explain various geographic features and phenomena. It uses some conventional techniques as well as advanced technology.

These are −

• Cartography − defines the methods and types of map making.

• Quantitative Methods & Techniques − it uses certain statistical and mathematical techniques to resolve geographical problems.

• Field Survey Methods − this technique is used to collect primary data.

• Geo-Informatics − Geo-informatics is an advanced technology that has been developed to address and define cartography, geosciences, and related branches of science and engineering. With the help of such technology, predicting the various geographic features and phenomena and other related features has become easy. Different technologies those are used in geo-informatics, are: Geographical Information System (GPS), Global Positioning System (GPS), Remote Sensing, etc.

Principles & Philosophy

Principles and Philosophy in Geography is technically known as "Geographical Thought" or "Philosophy of Geography", and it focuses on the study of epistemological (studies the nature, origin, and scope of knowledge), metaphysical (studies the fundamental nature of reality), and axiological (studies values and their nature and classification) issues in geography.

Based on Regional Approach

Based on the regional approach, geography is classified as −

• Regional Studies/Area Studies − It focuses on the study of unique characteristics of a particular geographic region, which includes local socio-cultural practices, economy, politics, topography, soil type, weather system, and related environmental factors.

• Regional Development − Primarily, it focuses on the study of regional disparity and reasons of backwardness and then makes and executes plan and policies to develop the region

• Regional Analysis − Focuses on the study of various social and economic problems of a region related to land use, changes in population, migration, impact on the environment, transportation, and health and welfare.

• Regional Planning − It is a multidisciplinary approach, which uses different conventional and advanced technologies with the purpose of developing a region in totality. It includes land-use activities, the development of infrastructure, and urban and rural settlements.

Conclusion

With such a comprehensive classification and subsequent description, we can say that geography is a such type of discipline that has relationships with almost all subjects of natural science as well as social science. And, because of this reason, we can assume that the description of many of the subjects, is incomplete in the absence of geography.