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Computer Network Articles
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How Web Works?
The World Wide Web (also known as the "web") is a global network of interconnected documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. It is a platform that allows people to access and share information, communicate with one another, and conduct business online. The web is built on top of the Internet, which is a global network of computers that are connected to each other and can communicate with one another. The Internet allows computers to send and receive data, such as emails, files, and web pages, to and from one another. The web was invented in ...
Read MorePeer to Peer Networks
A peer-to-peer (P2P) network is a decentralized network architecture where each participant (or "peer") can act as both a client and a server, allowing them to share resources and information directly with one another without the need for a central server. In a P2P network, each peer has equal status and can connect to any other peer on the network. Peers can share a variety of resources, including files, data, and computing power, with one another. P2P networks are commonly used for file sharing, as they allow users to download files directly from other users rather than from a ...
Read MoreProtocol and Protocol Hierarchies
A protocol is a set of rules and conventions agreed upon and followed by the communicating entities for data communication. A protocol outlines the what, how, and when of a communication. Three Aspects of a Protocol Syntax − It defines the format of data that is to be sent or received. Semantics − It defines the meaning of each section of bits that are transferred. Timing − It defines the time at which data is transferred as well as the speed at which it is transferred. ...
Read MoreTransmission of Light Through Fiber
In fiber optic communication, signals are transmitted through an optical fiber using the fundamental properties of light, specifically refraction and total internal reflection. Understanding these optical principles is essential for grasping how data travels through fiber optic cables over long distances with minimal loss. Refraction When a light ray travels from one transmission medium to another with different optical density, its direction changes at the interface between the two media. This phenomenon is called refraction of light. The optical density of a medium is measured by its refractive index. A higher refractive index indicates a denser medium. ...
Read MoreBaseband Transmission
Baseband transmission is a digital signaling method where data bits are directly converted into electrical signals without modulation. In this transmission technique, the entire bandwidth of the communication channel is used to transmit a single digital signal. In baseband systems, typically a higher voltage level represents bit 1, while a lower voltage level represents bit 0. The choice of encoding scheme affects factors like synchronization, error detection capability, and bandwidth efficiency. Types of Baseband Encoding Baseband encoding schemes can be categorized into three main types: unipolar, polar, and bipolar encoding. Each category uses different voltage levels and ...
Read MoreStructure of the Telephone System
The telephone system is organized as a highly redundant, multilevel hierarchy designed to provide reliable voice communication across vast distances. This hierarchical structure ensures efficient call routing and redundancy for uninterrupted service. Components of the Telephone System Subscriber telephone − The end user device that initiates or receives calls End office − Local central office directly connected to end users within a 1-10 km radius Local loop − A two-way connection between the subscriber's telephone and the end office Toll office − Switching centers that handle long-distance calls; called tandem ...
Read MoreWhat are the top 10 most exciting blockchain startups?
Blockchain is a distributed ledger technology that uses cryptographic methods to record and verify transactions across a network of computers. Originally developed as the underlying technology for Bitcoin, blockchain has evolved to impact numerous industries including healthcare, supply chain, finance, and digital media. The decentralized nature of blockchain eliminates the need for intermediaries, providing transparency, immutability, and enhanced security. As cryptocurrency adoption grows and Web3 technologies emerge, blockchain startups are developing innovative solutions that could transform how we handle data, conduct transactions, and interact in digital environments. How Blockchain Startups Are Innovating Blockchain startups typically focus on ...
Read MoreCellular Architecture
Cellular architecture is the foundation of mobile communication systems that enables wireless connectivity across large geographical areas. It divides service areas into smaller regions called cells, each served by a base station to provide efficient frequency reuse and seamless communication. The cellular architecture is constituted of the following components: A network of cells − Each cell contains a base station that provides radio coverage for mobile devices in that area. A packet switched network − Facilitates communication between base stations and mobile switching centers. The public switched telephone network (PSTN) − Connects ...
Read MoreCharacter - Oriented Framing and Bit - Oriented Framing
Framing is a Data Link layer function that encapsulates packets from the Network Layer into frames. Data frames can be of fixed or variable length. In variable-length framing, frame sizes may differ, so a pattern of bits serves as a delimiter to mark frame boundaries. The two types of variable-sized framing are: Character-oriented framing Bit-oriented framing Character-Oriented Framing In character-oriented framing, data is transmitted as a sequence of bytes using an 8-bit coding system like ASCII. This approach treats data as a stream of characters rather than individual bits. ...
Read MoreConstraint length of the Convolutional Code
Convolutional codes are error correcting codes where data streams of indefinite lengths are encoded before transmission over noisy channels. The message streams are encoded by the sliding application of Boolean functions that generate a sequence of output bits. Convolutional codes were first introduced in 1955 by Elias. After extensive research by mathematicians, Viterbi developed an algorithm for maximum likelihood decoding in 1973, called the Viterbi algorithm, which led to modern convolutional codes. Parameters in Convolutional Codes For generating a convolutional code, information is passed sequentially through a linear finite-state shift register. The shift register comprises of K-bit ...
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