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A process is not only a program under execution but it is the active state of the program when it is executing and it has its own Process Control Block.A process requires other resources like memory, CPU, hard disk, and Input/Output, etc.A process has five states as given below −New − The new state of a process means the process is just created and it is stored onto the hard disk. This process will be picked by the operating system into the main memory. The new state is the initial state.Ready − The ready state of a process means the ... Read More
Every process is represented in the operating system by a process control block also called a task control block.A process control block (PSB) contains many pieces of information and it contains the attributes of a process.Attributes of a processThe attributes of a process includes the following:Process idEvery process is given some number. It may be either 16bit or 32 bit.Program counterIt contains the next instruction that has to be executed.PriorityWhenever a process is created, it is assigned with some priority. Processes which are having higher priority are executed first compared to processes which are having lower priority.General purpose registersWhenever you ... Read More
Shell is a software program that acts as a mediator between the kernel and the user. It reads the commands and interrupts by sending requests to execute a program. So, the shell is known as a command interpreter.It contains almost 100 system calls. It tells the kernel to carry out various tasks for the program. These tasks are as follows −Opening a file.Writing a file.Obtaining information about a file.Executing programs.Terminating a process.Changing the priority of processes.Getting the time and date.Need of shell scriptingLet us see the reasons for using shell scripts which are given below −Shell helps in doing work ... Read More
A thread is a lightweight of process and is a basic unit of CPU utilization which consists of a program counter, a stack, and a set of registers.Given below is the structure of thread in a process −A process has a single thread of control where one program can counter and one sequence of instructions is carried out at any given time. Dividing an application or a program into multiple sequential threads that run in quasi-parallel, the programming model becomes simpler.Thread has the ability to share an address space and all of its data among themselves. This ability is essential ... Read More
It is one of the simplest forms of I/O where the CPU has to do all the work. This technique is called programmed I/O.Consider a user process that wants to print the Nine-character string ‘‘TUTORIALS’’ on the printer with the help of a serial interface.The software first assembles the string in a buffer in user space, as shown in the figure −ExplanationStep 1 − The user process acquires the printer for writing by using a system call to open it.Step 2 − If the printer is currently in use by another process, this system call fails and returns an error ... Read More
Communication in client-server can communicate using shared memory and message passing.These techniques can be used for communication in client-server systems.Strategies for CommunicationWe can explore three other strategies for communication in client-server systems which are as follows −SocketsA socket is defined as an end point for communication. A pair of processes communicating over network employees or a pair of sockets, one for each process.A socket is identified by an IP address connected with a port number. In general, sockets use client server architecture. The server waits for incoming client requests by listening to a specified port.Once a request is received, the ... Read More
Shared memory system is the fundamental model of inter process communication. In a shared memory system, in the address space region the cooperating communicate with each other by establishing the shared memory region.Shared memory concept works on fastest inter process communication.If the process wants to initiate the communication and it has some data to share, then establish the shared memory region in its address space.After that, another process wants to communicate and tries to read the shared data, and must attach itself to the initiating process’s shared address space.Message Passing provides a mechanism to allow processes to communicate and to ... Read More
The trends in data mining are as follows −Application exploration − Early data mining applications targeted generally on helping businesses gain a competitive edge. The exploration of data mining for businesses continues to expand as e-commerce and e-marketing have become mainstream components of the retail market.Data mining is increasingly used for the exploration of applications in several areas, including financial analysis, telecommunications, biomedicine, and science. Emerging software areas contain data mining for counterterrorism (including and beyond intrusion detection) and mobile (wireless) data mining. As generic data mining systems can have limitations in dealing with application-specific issues, it can view a ... Read More
There are various features of data mining that are as follows −Data types − Most data mining systems that are accessible in the industry handle formatted, record-based, relational-like data with statistical, categorical, and symbolic attributes. The data can be in the form of ASCII text, relational database data, or data warehouse data. It is essential to test what exact format(s) each system it is treating can handle.Some types of data or applications can require specialized algorithms to search for patterns, and so their requirements cannot be managed by off-the-shelf, generic data mining systems. Rather than, specialized data mining systems can ... Read More
The following are areas in which data mining technology can be used or created for intrusion detection which are as follows −Development of data mining algorithms for intrusion detection − Data mining algorithms can be used for misuse detection and anomaly detection. In misuse detection, training information is labeled as either “normal” or “intrusion.” A classifier can then be changed to detect known intrusions.There is multiple research in this area that has contained the application of classification algorithms, association rule mining, and cost-sensitive modeling. Anomaly detection constructs models of normal behavior and automatically detects significant deviations from it and supervised ... Read More