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MCA Articles
Page 13 of 95
Protocol and Protocol Hierarchies
A protocol is a set of rules and conventions agreed upon and followed by the communicating entities for data communication. A protocol outlines the what, how, and when of a communication. Three Aspects of a Protocol Syntax − It defines the format of data that is to be sent or received. Semantics − It defines the meaning of each section of bits that are transferred. Timing − It defines the time at which data is transferred as well as the speed at which it is transferred. ...
Read MoreTransmission of Light Through Fiber
In fiber optic communication, signals are transmitted through an optical fiber using the fundamental properties of light, specifically refraction and total internal reflection. Understanding these optical principles is essential for grasping how data travels through fiber optic cables over long distances with minimal loss. Refraction When a light ray travels from one transmission medium to another with different optical density, its direction changes at the interface between the two media. This phenomenon is called refraction of light. The optical density of a medium is measured by its refractive index. A higher refractive index indicates a denser medium. ...
Read MoreConnection-Oriented Services
A connection-oriented service is one that establishes a dedicated connection between the communicating entities before data communication commences. It is modeled after the telephone system. To use a connection-oriented service, the user first establishes a connection, uses it, and then releases it. In connection-oriented services, the data streams/packets are delivered to the receiver in the same order in which they have been sent by the sender. Connection-Oriented Service Flow Sender Receiver 1. Connection Request 2. ...
Read MoreBaseband Transmission
Baseband transmission is a digital signaling method where data bits are directly converted into electrical signals without modulation. In this transmission technique, the entire bandwidth of the communication channel is used to transmit a single digital signal. In baseband systems, typically a higher voltage level represents bit 1, while a lower voltage level represents bit 0. The choice of encoding scheme affects factors like synchronization, error detection capability, and bandwidth efficiency. Types of Baseband Encoding Baseband encoding schemes can be categorized into three main types: unipolar, polar, and bipolar encoding. Each category uses different voltage levels and ...
Read MoreStructure of the Telephone System
The telephone system is organized as a highly redundant, multilevel hierarchy designed to provide reliable voice communication across vast distances. This hierarchical structure ensures efficient call routing and redundancy for uninterrupted service. Components of the Telephone System Subscriber telephone − The end user device that initiates or receives calls End office − Local central office directly connected to end users within a 1-10 km radius Local loop − A two-way connection between the subscriber's telephone and the end office Toll office − Switching centers that handle long-distance calls; called tandem ...
Read MoreConnectionless Services
A Connectionless service is a data communication method between two nodes where the sender transmits data without establishing a dedicated connection or ensuring the receiver's availability. In this model, each data packet contains complete destination addressing information and is routed independently of other packets through the network. Unlike connection-oriented services, connectionless communication requires no initial handshake or connection setup. Data packets, called datagrams, may take different paths to reach their destination, with the network making routing decisions independently for each packet. Connectionless Service - Independent Packet Routing Sender ...
Read MoreCellular Architecture
Cellular architecture is the foundation of mobile communication systems that enables wireless connectivity across large geographical areas. It divides service areas into smaller regions called cells, each served by a base station to provide efficient frequency reuse and seamless communication. The cellular architecture is constituted of the following components: A network of cells − Each cell contains a base station that provides radio coverage for mobile devices in that area. A packet switched network − Facilitates communication between base stations and mobile switching centers. The public switched telephone network (PSTN) − Connects ...
Read MoreReference Models in Computer Network
In computer networks, reference models provide a conceptual framework that standardizes communication between heterogeneous networks. These models define how data should flow through different layers of network architecture, ensuring interoperability between different systems and technologies. The two most widely adopted reference models are: OSI Model − A theoretical seven-layer model TCP/IP Protocol Suite − A practical four-layer model used on the Internet OSI Model The OSI (Open System Interconnection) model was developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO). It provides a layered networking framework that conceptualizes how communication should occur between heterogeneous systems through ...
Read MoreThe Data Link Layer of OSI Model
The Data Link Layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model converts the raw transmission facility provided by the physical layer into a reliable and error-free communication link between adjacent network nodes. This layer acts as a bridge between the physical transmission medium and the network layer, ensuring that data frames are delivered accurately across a single network segment or local link. Primary Functions Framing − It breaks up the stream of bits into manageable data frames, typically ranging from a few hundred to a few thousand bytes in size. Addressing − It ensures ...
Read MoreCharacter - Oriented Framing and Bit - Oriented Framing
Framing is a Data Link layer function that encapsulates packets from the Network Layer into frames. Data frames can be of fixed or variable length. In variable-length framing, frame sizes may differ, so a pattern of bits serves as a delimiter to mark frame boundaries. The two types of variable-sized framing are: Character-oriented framing Bit-oriented framing Character-Oriented Framing In character-oriented framing, data is transmitted as a sequence of bytes using an 8-bit coding system like ASCII. This approach treats data as a stream of characters rather than individual bits. ...
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