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The functions of the presentation layer are as follows:It provides the users with a way to execute the session service primitives. For that, it uses the contexts, each consisting of some data types and their transfer syntaxes. When a session is established, the peer entities negotiate for one or more contexts. It can change these contexts as the session progresses.Once the negotiations have been agreed upon, each machine is free to represent the data structures internally in the most convenient form. It is known that it should express that it can be transmitted and understood by the remote peer entity ... Read More
The sixth layer of the OSI reference model is the presentation layer. This layer is concerned with the issue relating to the external data representation. It is up to the session layer that we have assumed the user data as a string of bits, and we have discussed the conditions for reliable transfer of this bit stream from one end system to another.The presentation layer, irrespective of the internal data representation, encodes the information into an external indication that the other end system’s presentation layer is well understood.The function of the presentation layer is to encode the structured data (i.e., ... Read More
The session layer services are provided by a functional unit set, which constitutes the session layer. The session layer can be understanding as a general-purpose tool kit out of which the user selects the tools to be used.The functions provided by the session layers are as follows:Session EstablishmentThe session layer’s primary function is to provide and establish connections between communicating users, known as sessions. It can transfer the data over these sessions in a reliable and orderly way.It can settle a session between two computers for communication, file transfer, remote login, or other purposes. It can establish Connection-oriented and connectionless ... Read More
It is one of the parts of the upper layers. The Application Layer, Presentation Layer, and Session Layers form the OSI reference model's upper layers. They provide user-oriented services. The session layer provides a defined set of services to the presentation layerPresentation Layer uses session layer protocols and transport services. The session layer service’s actual user is the application layer through which the presentation layer lies between them. It has relatively few features as compared to lower layers. It controls structures and the interaction between the application programme.It synchronizes the interaction between elements and controls the direction of information flow, ... Read More
SCTP stands for Stream Control Transmission Protocol. It is a new reliable, messageoriented transport layer protocol. SCTP, however, is mostly designed for Internet applications that have recently been introduced. These new applications, such as IUA (ISDN over IP), M2UA and M3UA (telephony signaling), H.248 (media gateway control), H.323 (IP telephony), and SIP (IP telephony), etc.SCTP combines the best features of UDP and TCP. SCTP is a reliable message-oriented protocol. It preserves the message boundaries, and at the same time, detects lost data, duplicate data, and out-of-order data. It also has congestion control and flows control mechanisms.Features of SCTPThere are various ... Read More
SLIP stands for Serial Line Internet Protocol. SLIP is an Internet protocol that allows users to gain Internet access using a computer modem. Today, SLIP is not used as frequently as its successor, PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol), which provides enhanced error detection and automatic configuration.SLIP is commonly used on dedicated serial links and sometimes for dialup purposes and is usually used with line speeds between 1200bps and 19.2Kbps. It is useful for allowing mixes of hosts and routers to communicate with one another (host-host, host-router and router- router are all common SLIP network configurations).SLIP defines a sequence of characters that frame ... Read More
IGMP stands for Internet Group Management Protocol. It is a protocol that allows several devices to share one IP address so they can all receive the same data. IGMP is a network layer protocol used to set up multicasting on networks that use the Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4). Specifically, IGMP allows devices to join a multicast group.IGMP is not a multicasting routing protocol; it is a protocol that manages group membership. In any network, there are one or more multicast routers that distribute multicast packets to hosts or other routers.The IGMP protocol gives the multicast routers information about the ... Read More
Wireless LAN is one of the fastest-growing technologies. IEEE 802.11 refers to the set of standards that define communication for wireless LANs (wireless local area networks, or WLANs). The technology behind 802.11 is branded to consumers as Wi-Fi.Wireless LAN can be found on college campuses, in office buildings, in hospitals, stock exchanges and in many public areas. It has become popular due to the ease of installation and location freedom with the gaining popularity of laptops.Wi-Fi is now one of the major forms of communication for many devices, and with home automation increasing, even more, devices are using it. Home ... Read More
There are three types of frame formats that are supported on a Token Ring network such as token, abort, and frame. The token format is the mechanism by which access to the ring is passed from one computer attached to the network to another device connected to the network.Here, the token format consists of three bytes, of which the starting and ending delimiters are used to indicate the beginning and end of a token frame. The middle byte of a token frame is an access control byte.Three bits are used as a priority indicator, three bits are used as a ... Read More
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile communication. GSM is a mobile communication modem; it stands for global system for mobile communication (GSM). The idea of GSM was developed at Bell Laboratories in 1970.It is a widely used mobile communication system in the world. GSM is an open and digital cellular technology used for transmitting mobile voice and data services operating at the 850MHz, 900MHz, 1800MHz, and 1900MHz frequency bands.There are various cell sizes in a GSM system, such as macro, micro, pico, and umbrella cells. Each cell varies as per the implementation domain. There are five different cell sizes ... Read More