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Articles on Trending Technologies
Technical articles with clear explanations and examples
IEEE 802.3 and Ethernet
Ethernet is a set of technologies and protocols that are used primarily in LANs. It was first standardized in the 1980s by IEEE 802.3 standard. IEEE 802.3 defines the physical layer and the medium access control (MAC) sub-layer of the data link layer for wired Ethernet networks. Ethernet is classified into two main categories: classic Ethernet and switched Ethernet. Classic Ethernet is the original form providing data rates between 3 to 10 Mbps, commonly referred to as 10BASE-X variants. Switched Ethernet uses switches to connect stations in the LAN, replacing repeaters and allowing full bandwidth utilization. IEEE 802.3 ...
Read MoreAutomatic Power Save Delivery (APSD)
In IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs, Automatic Power Save Delivery (APSD) is a mechanism that aims to reduce power consumption by the devices connected in the network. It was originally introduced to IEEE 802.11e in 2005 to address the growing need for energy-efficient wireless communications. How APSD Works APSD is generally deployed in infrastructure BSS (basic service set). In infrastructure BSS, there are access points (APs) which are basically wireless routers forming the base stations for access. All the wireless devices (clients) communicate with each other through the APs. When a client has frames to send, it sends the ...
Read MoreUnderstanding Internet of Robotic Things
The Internet of Things (IoT) enables connecting smart devices to the network where these devices can communicate with each other without human intervention. This technology allows users to transmit huge amounts of data through wireless media. When IoT is combined with robotics, it creates a more advanced paradigm called the Internet of Robotic Things (IoRT), which adds intelligence, autonomous decision-making, and physical interaction capabilities to connected devices. IoT vs Internet of Robotic Things Traditional IoT • Data Collection • Remote Monitoring ...
Read MoreBlock Cipher Design Principles
A Block Cipher is an encryption algorithm that works with a symmetric key to transform fixed-size blocks of plaintext into ciphertext blocks of the same size. The plaintext is divided into several blocks of equal size, typically 64, 128, or 256 bits. If the plaintext length doesn't allow equal block division, padding is applied to complete the final block. Block ciphers process each block independently using the same key, producing deterministic output where n input bits always generate n output bits. However, identical plaintext blocks can produce different ciphertext blocks depending on the encryption mode used. This makes block ...
Read MoreWhat is CIDR and how it works?
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method for allocating IP addresses and routing internet traffic more efficiently than the traditional classful addressing system. CIDR allows network administrators to create custom-sized networks by specifying exactly how many bits are used for the network portion of an IP address. Unlike classful addressing (Class A, B, C), CIDR eliminates the rigid boundaries of predefined address classes, enabling more flexible and efficient use of IP address space. This approach significantly reduces IP address wastage by allocating only the exact number of addresses needed. How CIDR Works CIDR uses slash notation to ...
Read MoreDCF InterFrame Spacing (DIFS)
Distributed coordination function (DCF) is a mandatory technique used to prevent collisions in IEEE 802.11-based WLAN standard (Wi-Fi). It is a medium access control (MAC) sublayer technique used in areas where carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is used. Using DCF technique, a station needs to sense the status of the wireless channel before it can place its request to transmit a frame. The time interval that a station should wait before it sends its request frame is known as DCF Interframe Spacing (DIFS). What is DIFS? DIFS is a specific time duration that wireless stations ...
Read MoreThe Mobile Web
The Mobile Web refers to accessing and browsing the World Wide Web using mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. Unlike traditional desktop browsing, mobile web experiences are optimized for smaller screens, touch interfaces, and varying network conditions. Mobile web has become the dominant form of internet access, with mobile traffic accounting for over half of global web traffic. This shift has fundamentally changed how websites are designed and how users interact with online content. Mobile Web Ecosystem Mobile Browser Web Content ...
Read MoreCalculation of TCP Checksum
The TCP checksum is a 16-bit error detection mechanism used to verify the integrity of TCP segments during transmission. It ensures that data has not been corrupted or altered while traveling across the network. The checksum calculation involves creating a pseudo-header that includes parts of the IP header, the entire TCP header (with checksum field set to zero), and the TCP data. This approach provides end-to-end error detection across both network and transport layers. TCP Checksum Calculation Process 1. Pseudo-Header IP addresses + Protocol ...
Read MoreTypes of Bridge Protocol Data Unit (BPDUs)
In this article, we will understand the types of Bridge Protocol Data Unit (BPDU). BPDU is the messaging mechanism used by switches in the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) domain to exchange critical network topology information. The Spanning Tree Algorithm uses BPDU transmission to discover and understand the network topology, preventing loops and ensuring optimal path selection. When devices are connected to switch ports, data transmission doesn't begin immediately. Instead, ports transition through various STP states, and BPDUs are used during this process to determine network topology and enable switches to gather information about each other. ...
Read MoreAdvantages and Disadvantages of GPS
Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system originally developed for military use. The first fully operational GPS became available in 1995, followed by civilian vehicle integration in 1996. GPS consists of a constellation of satellites orbiting Earth that continuously transmit signals to ground-based receivers, enabling precise location determination through trilateration. The system requires signals from at least four satellites to calculate accurate position coordinates and timing information. GPS operates globally without requiring internet connectivity, though internet access enhances functionality. The most widely used GPS system is NAVSTAR, operated by the United States. ...
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