Introduction Thorns and spines are modified organs of plants. They evolved from a simple leaf or shoot to function as a defensive organ to protect themselves from the predators, sometimes they used it as a climbing tool. In xerophytes, the stems are modified to phylloclades that store water for future ... Read More

Introduction The immune system protects the body from foreign substances which are harmful to the body. Bacteria, viruses, fungi, and toxins are included in the foreign substances. The immune system comprises an extensive network of cells, organs, proteins, and tissue present in the body. The immune system can be ... Read More

Introduction to the autonomic nervous system The nervous system is an important system that plays an important role in every action of life and is responsible for all involuntary and voluntary actions of our body. It constitutes the nerve network, spinal cord, and brain and is classified into three divisions. ... Read More

Introduction Angiosperms are the most progressive plant species inhabiting the land. Reproduction in flowering plants starts with the division of fertilized egg to form an embryo. The plants follow a haplodiplontic pattern that alternates between gametophytic and sporophytic phases. Thus it is important to have clear knowledge between the two ... Read More

Introduction In all living things reproduction is the criterion that makes life move from one generation to the other. Gametogenesis is that process which takes place both in the male and female sex. In gametogenesis, the formation of the male gametes (sex cells) and female gametes takes place separately. In ... Read More

Introduction The sperm is a male gamete, produced in the testes. It remains inactivated before ejaculation in the female tract that has a specific pH range helps in the capacitation of the sperm and controls its motility towards the ovum. The mitochondria supplies energy and the flagellum helps in propelling. ... Read More

Introduction The living organisms in a given specific geographical area live together with other organisms and interact among themselves as well as with the environmental factors. The organisms are extremely diverse and range from single cellular entities to highly complex multicellular organisms. They interact irrespective of their dissimilarities for the ... Read More

Introduction The minute we think about the concept of hibernation, we think about a bear in a deep sleep phase. The general consensus is that the two phenomena, i.e., sleep and hibernation, are very similar and co-related to each other, which is an inaccurate fact. Sleep and hibernation not only ... Read More

Introduction Along with carbohydrates and proteins, fats are one of the three basic macronutrient groups in the human diet. Fatty acids, which are another name for fat, are composed of the three essential elements carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with carbon making up a large portion of the composition. The majority ... Read More

Introduction Fungi are eukaryotic organisms containing proper cell walls and membrane-bound organelles. These are heterotrophs and depend on other organisms for food and nutrition. Fungi are economically essential as they feed on dead and decaying matter, breaking complex minerals into simple ones and supplying them back to the soil. This ... Read More