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MCA Articles
Page 12 of 95
Different types of system calls
The interface between a process and an operating system is provided by system calls. In general, system calls are available as assembly language instructions. They are also included in the manuals used by the assembly level programmers. System calls are usually made when a process in user mode requires access to a resource. Then it requests the kernel to provide the resource via a system call. Types of System Calls There are mainly five types of system calls. These are explained in detail as follows − Types of System Calls ...
Read MoreDistributed Systems
A distributed system contains multiple nodes that are physically separate but linked together using the network. All the nodes in this system communicate with each other and handle processes in tandem. Each of these nodes contains a small part of the distributed operating system software. Distributed System Architecture Network Node 1 OS Part A Node 2 OS Part ...
Read MoreReaders-Writers Problem
The readers-writers problem relates to an object such as a file that is shared between multiple processes. Some of these processes are readers i.e. they only want to read the data from the object and some of the processes are writers i.e. they want to write into the object. The readers-writers problem is used to manage synchronization so that there are no problems with the object data. For example − If two readers access the object at the same time there is no problem. However if two writers or a reader and writer access the object at the same ...
Read MoreClient Server Computing
Client-Server Computing is a distributed computing model where clients request resources and servers provide those resources. A server can serve multiple clients simultaneously, while each client typically communicates with one server at a time. Both components usually communicate via a computer network, though they may reside on the same system. Client-Server Architecture Server Client 1 Client 2 ...
Read MoreRace Condition, Critical Section and Semaphore
Race conditions, Critical Sections, and Semaphores are fundamental concepts in operating systems that deal with process synchronization and coordination. Understanding these concepts is essential for preventing data inconsistency and ensuring proper execution in multi-threaded environments. Race Condition A race condition occurs when multiple processes or threads access shared data simultaneously, and the final result depends on the timing or order of their execution. This unpredictable behavior can lead to inconsistent or incorrect results. Race conditions typically arise when: Multiple processes read and write shared variables The execution order is not controlled At least one process ...
Read MoreWhat is the difference between time.clock() and time.time()?
The function time.time() returns the time in seconds since the epoch, i.e., the point where the time starts. For Unix and Windows, the epoch is January 1, 1970 (UTC). The function time.clock() was used to measure processor time on Unix and wall-clock time on Windows. However, time.clock() was deprecated in Python 3.3 and removed in Python 3.8. The recommended replacements are time.perf_counter() for wall-clock timing and time.process_time() for CPU time. Syntax import time time.time() # Wall-clock time since epoch time.perf_counter() # ...
Read MoreCoaxial Cable
Coaxial cables, commonly called coax, are copper cables with metal shielding designed to provide immunity against noise and greater bandwidth. Coax can transmit signals over larger distances at a higher speed as compared to twisted pair cables. Structure of Coaxial Cables Coax has a central core of stiff copper conductor for transmitting signals. This is covered by an insulating material. The insulator is encased by a closely woven braided metal outer conductor that acts as a shield against noise. The outer conductor is again enclosed by a plastic insulating cover. Coaxial Cable Structure ...
Read MoreWho's Who in the Internet Standards World
Internet Standards refer to all the documented requirements both in technology as well as methodology pertaining to the Internet. The standardization process has maturity levels that ensure protocols are thoroughly tested before widespread adoption. Internet Standards Maturity Levels Proposed Standard − Standards that are ready for implementation but can be revised according to deployment circumstances. Internet Standard − Technically matured standards that define protocols and message formats. These include fundamental standards that form the Internet Protocol (IP). Internet Standards Organizations IETF Standards ...
Read MoreWho's Who in the Telecommunications World
The service domains, legal status, and scopes of telecommunication companies worldwide are varied. To provide compatibility among different agencies, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) was formed. ITU is a specialized agency of the United Nations that standardizes information and communication technologies worldwide. ITU serves as the central coordinating body for global telecommunications, bringing together governments and private sector companies to ensure seamless international communication. Its membership represents the who's who of the telecommunications world. ITU: Global Telecommunications Coordination ITU-T Standards ...
Read MoreArchitecture of the Internet
The architecture of the Internet is a dynamic, multi-layered structure that continuously evolves with advancing technologies and changing service demands. Due to its heterogeneous nature and vast scale, the Internet's architecture can be best understood through a hierarchical model. Three-Level Internet Architecture The Internet's overall architecture consists of three distinct levels: Tier-1 ISPs (Backbone Internet Service Providers) Tier-2 ISPs (Regional Internet Service Providers) Tier-3 ISPs and End Users (Local ISPs and Clients) Internet Architecture Hierarchy Tier-1 ISPs (Backbone Networks) ...
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